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Performing Arts in India - Part 2
4.0 DANCES OF INDIA
The Rig Veda mentions dance (nrti) and danseuse (nrtu) and compares the brilliant dawn (usas) to a brightly attrived danseuse. In the Brahmanas, Jaiminiya and Kausitaki dance and music are mentioned together. The Epics are full of references to dances on earth and heaven. Like music, Indian dance has also developed a rich classical tradition. It has a great power of expression and emotions while telling a story.
4.1 Dance in ancient India
The art of dancing in India may be traced back to the Harappan culture. The discovery of the bronze statue of a dancing girl testifies to the fact that some women in Harappa performed dances.
In traditional Indian culture the function of dance was to give symbolic expression to religious ideas. The figure of Lord Shiva as Nataraj a represents the creation and destruction of the cosmic cycle. The popular image of Shiva in the form of Nataraj a clearly shows the popularity of dance form on the Indian people. There is not a single temple atleast in the southern part of the country which does not show the sculptures of the dancers in their different forms. In fact classical dance forms like Kathakali, Bharatnatyam, Kathak, Manipuri, Kuchi pudi and Odishi are an important part of our cultural heritage.
It is difficult to say at what point of time dance originated, but it is obvious that dance came into existence as an effort to express joy. Gradually dances came to be divided as folk and classical. The classical form of dance was performed in temples as well as in royal courts. The dance in temples had a religious objective whereas in courts it was used purely for entertainment. In both cases for the artists devoted to this art form, it was no less than praying to God. In southern India Bharatanatyam and Mohiniattam developed as an important aspect of the rituals in temples. Yakshagana, a form of Kathakali in Kerala, tells us stories of Ramayana and Mahabharata whereas Kathak and Manipuri are mostly related to the stories of Krishna and his leela (exploits). Performance of Odissi is related to the worship of Lord Jagannath. Though the Krishna leela and the stories related to Lord Shiva was the theme of Kathak, this dance came to be performed in royal courts in medieval times. Romantic gestures contained in Thumri and Ghazal, that were also performed with accompanists for the kings, reflect this aspect. Manipuri dance was also preformed for religious purposes. Folk dances evolved from the lives of common people and were performed in unison. In Assam people celebrate most of the harvesting season through Bihu. Similarly Garba of Gujarat, Bhangra and Gidda of Punjab, bamboo dance of Mizoram, Koli, the fisherman's dance of Maharashtra, Dhumal of Kashmir, and Chhau of Bengal are unique examples of performing arts that gave expression to the joys and sorrows of the masses.
As far as the analytical study of this art form is concerned, the Natyashastra of Bharata is a primary source of information, and basically deals with drama. Bharata has discussed dance and its various angas (limbs) in detail. Facial expressions, body movements, hasta mudras and the footsteps have all been brought together under three broad categories namely, as nritta (pada sanchalan), nritya (anga sanchalan) and natya (abhinay). Both men and women took keen interest in dance but generally women dancers were looked down upon in society. However, with the efforts of great music thinkers and various religious and social reform movements, people have started to hold women performers with great respect.
4.2 The Medieval Period
In the medieval period Kathak dance form was promoted by the Muslim rulers. We hear of these performances in the courts of most of the Mughal rulers except for Aurangzeb. In the south, temples,' court' and other parts of the building provided an important stage for all dancers. Navaras, mythological tales of Rama, Krishna, Ganesh, Durga were all enacted in the form of dance. Some rulers of the north like Wajid ali Shah was a great patron of music and dance and here the seeds of the Lucknow gharana or' school of dance' was sown. The modern day dancers like Pt. Birju Maharaj all have come from the Lucknow school of dance. In the medieval period, the south remained very rigid with the rules of dances that were imbibed from ancient Sanskrit texts. It became a seat of learning and institutions of dance sprung up first in the southern region.
4.3 The Modern Period
In the modern period, we find maximum dance forms in the south Indian classical dance stream. They are Kucchipudi, Bharatnatyam, Mohiniattam, Kathakali. On the eastern Along with classical dance forms, folk dance also flourished. In most of the regions the local dance form became very popular. Manipuri dance, Santhal dance, Rabindranath's dance, drama, chhau, ras, gidda, bhangra, garba are some of the folk dances that have flourished in India. They are equally popular and have extreme acumen and innovation. Practically every region of our country has developed their own rich tradition of folk dances. For example, the Bihu dance of Assam, Mask dance of Ladakh, Wangla of Meghalaya, Bhutia or Lepcha dance of Sikkim. Similarly we also have some dances which are called martial dances like Chholia of Uttranchal, Kalari paittu of Kerala, Thang-taa of Manipur among the more famous ones.
Presently, all the three art forms are flourishing in the country. Musical institutions have opened up giving opportunities to many. Schools, universities have departments of music. Indira Kala Vishwa Vidyalaya of Khairagarh is a university of music, Gandharva Maha-Vidyalaya, Kathak Kendra and many institutes in the south are all propagating music in their own ways. Music conferences, Baithaks, lecture, demonstrations are all spreading music to nooks and corners of India. Societies like Spic-Macay, India International Rural Cultural Centre have worked very hard to bring about a rapport and bondage with artists and the modern generation.
Musicians have also flourished abroad and different institutions of music started by Pt. Ravi Shankar, Ustad Ali Akbar Khan, Alia Rakkha etc. are prestigious teaching centres for foreigners. Many foreign universities also have facilities of art forms giving degrees and diplomas to students. All over the world Indian artists are invited to perform and participate in various festivals and occasions.
In the last few decades the status of dance as well as its performers has changed. Young people have started learning dance to enrich their personal qualities. In some of the schools, colleges and universities separate departments have been established for imparting training in dance. Several renowned classical dancers have been awarded national awards like the Padmashree and the Padmabhusan.
Throughout the different periods of history starting from the dancing figure found in the Indus valley civilization to the present, Indian people have expressed their j oys and sorrows by singing and dancing through various art forms. This art form has been used to express their love, hatred, their aspirations and their struggle for survival which ultimately led to the enrichment of our culture.
5.0 DRAMA
5.1 Ancient Traditions
Indigenous tradition as well as modern research traces the origin of Indian drama to the Vedas. In the Ramayana we hear of drama troupes of women while Kautilya's Arthshastra mentions musicians, dancers and dramatic shows.
Since early times mythological stories of war between the gods, goddesses and the devils is known. Bharata wrote Natyashastra and created the plays known as AsuraParajaya and Amrit Manthan.
The next epoch is that of the great Bhasa who wrote plays based on the stories of Udayana, the Ramayana and Mahabharata, Swapana Vasabdatta being his masterpiece. In the second century B.C. Patanjalis' Mahabhasya refers to several aspects of drama i.e. the actors, the music, the stage, rasa in the performances called Kamsavadha and Balibandha.
While referring to drama, Bharata has mentioned not (male artists), and nati (female artist), music, dance, musical instruments, dialogues, themes and stage. Thus we find that drama achieved a great level of perfection during the age of Bharata. For Bharata, drama is a perfect means of communication. He also started the concept of an enclosed area for drama. There is mention of a community called' shailoosh' which had professional drama companies. The practice of singing heroic tales became popular. As a result professional singers called kushilavas came into existence.
During the age of the Buddha and Mahavira, drama was a means of communicating the principles of their respective religions. Short skits and long plays were enacted to preach and educate the masses. Music and dance also played a vital role in increasing the appeal of drama.
In the ancient period till the tenth century, the language of the educated, was Sanskrit. So dramas were performed mostly in this language. However, characters belonging to lower classes and women were made to speak Prakrit. Kautilya's Arthashastra Vatsyayan's Kamasutra, Kalidasa's Abhijnan Shakuntalam were all written in Sanskrit and were significant plays of those times. Bhasa was another celebrated dramatist who wrote thirteen plays. Prakrit plays became popular by the tenth century AD. Vidyapati who lived sometime during the fourteenth century was an important dramatist. He introduced Hindi and other regional languages in the form of songs. Umapati Mishra and Sharada Tanaya were also instrumental in promoting drama during this time.
5.2 The two types of Drama
In the context of drama, two types developed-the classic drama, which had intricacies of theme and subtle nuances of dramatic traits and folk theatre. It was of spontaneous and extempore nature. Local dialect was used in folk theatre and hence in different provinces many types of folk theatres developed. Acting with accompaniment of music and dance was the popular practice. Many names were given to the forms of folk theatre in different provinces like:
- Bengal - Jatra, Kirtania Natak
- Bihar - Bideshia
- Rajasthan - Raas, Jhumar, Dhola Maru
- Uttar Pradesh - Raas, Nautanki, Svaang, Bhaand
- Gujarat - Bhawaii
- Maharashtra - Larite, Tamasha
- Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka - Kathakali, Yakshagana
5.3 The Medieval Period
The medieval period was rich in music and dance but theatre did not get much prominence. Wajid Ali Shah, a great patron of art was also an important patron of drama. He enthused artists to participate in theatre and supported them. In the southern region, folk theatre with the use of local dialects was more popular.
5.4 The British influence on Drama
The advent of the British in the country changed the character of the society. In the eighteenth century a theatre was established in Calcutta by an Englishman. A Russian named Horasim Lebedev founded a Bengali theatre which marked the beginning of modern Indian theatre in India. English drama, especially by Shakespeare, influenced Indian drama. The stages evolved by educated Indians were different from traditional open air theatre. The stages now had rolling curtains and change of scenes. A Parsi company founded in Bombay showed that theatre could be used for commercial purposes. Dramas began to depict tragedies, comedies and the complexities of urban life. Dramas were now written in different regional languages. Side by side, folk theatre like jatra, nautanki, Mya/(Rajasthani folk), and naach also flourished. Another aspect which influenced performing arts was the adaptation of folk forms to classical forms. Connoisseurs in different fields made their respective arts a medium for serving the cause of the masses. So they adapted the popular folk arts to reach out to people. A similar situation appeared in the case of writing of drama. Vidyasundar, a popular drama of the medieval period, was influenced by Jatra. Geet Govinda, an exemplary work by the great poet Jayadev, weaved stories of Krishna in kirtania natak and jatra style.
At present, a lot of experiments are taking place in the field of drama. Western influences are very clear in the works of Shambhu Mitra, Feisal Alkazi, Badal Sarkar, Vijay Tendulkar and others.
For the content and thematic aspect of dance and drama, we must examine the works of creative literature. The most important literary event, which influenced not only dance and drama but painting also, was the composition of Jayadeva's Gita-Govinda in the 13th century. Its great impact can be seen on dance and drama forms all over India-from Manipur and Assam in the east to Guj arat in the west; from Mathura and Vrindavan in the North, to Tamil Nadu and Kerala in the South... Innumerable commentaries on the Gita-Govinda exist throughout the country. There are a large number of manuscripts dealing with the Gita-Govinda as material for dance or drama and this work has been the basic literary text used by many regional theatrical traditions. The spread of Vaisnavism during this period gave further impetus to the development of different forms of dance, drama and music.
6.0 PRESENT SCENARIO OF THE PERFORMING ARTS
Presently, all the three art forms i.e. dance, music and drama are flourishing in the country. Several music institutions like Gandharva Mahavidyalaya and Prayag Sangeet Samiti have been imparting training in classical music and dance for more than fifty years. A number of schools, colleges and universities in India have adopted these art forms as a part of their curriculum. Indira Kala Sangeet Vishwa Vidyalaya of Khairagarh is a university of music. Kathak Kendra, National School of Drama, Bharatiya Kala Kendra and many institutes are all propagating music in their own ways. Music conferences, baithaks, lecture demonstrations are being organised and musicians, music scholars, music teachers and music critics are trying to popularise music and dance. Societies like Spic-macay, Sangeet Natak Academies are also working hard to protect, develop and popularise Indian music, dance and drama at the national and even international level.
At the international level musicians have made significant contribution. Different institutions of music started by Pt. Ravi Shankar, Ustad Ali Akbar Khan and Ustad Alia Rakkha Khan teach Indian music to foreigners. Many foreign universities have departments of Indian performing arts and they award degrees and diplomas to students. All over the world Indian artists are invited to perform and participate in various festivals. Various agencies like Indian Council of Cultural Relations (ICCR) and the Ministry of Human Resource Development continuously propagate all these art forms by giving grants, scholarships and fellowships to renowned artists as well as to young artists and by arranging exchange programmes in the field of Indian music, dance and drama.
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