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Dance Forms - Part 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The culture of dance has a long history in India. A large amount of material related to dance, dating from as early as the 2nd century BCE up to the 21st century CE, is available. For example we have a bronze 'dancing girl' figurine from Mohenjo-daro and a broken torso from Harappa in a dance pose.
2.0 EVOLUTION
The evolution and the history of dance in India can be divided into three periods - classical, middle and modern.
2.1 Classical period
The first still available classical manual on dance is Bharat Muni's Natyashastra (about 2nd century BCE). It gives a clear and detailed account of dance. It is said that apsaras (celestial dancers) were made to perform in the earliest drama to make the performance interesting for the audience. After watching the first performance of drama, Natyashastra narrates that Shiva wanted dance and dance movements to be made a part of drama, and for that, the sage Tandu was requested to compose and direct a dance. Tandu taught dance movements - caris (foot and leg positions), mandalas (circular movements), karanas (movements of hands) and angaharas (dance postures) - to Bharat Muni who made them part of the training of actors and dancers in a play. The dance came to be called tandava, a series of body postures that form the basic language of Indian dance. The parallel dance performed by women is known as lasya.
After the Natyashastra, another significant available work on dance is Nandikeshvar’s Abhinaya Darpana (2nd century CE). These two manuals contain the principles of dance. Indian dance has a grammar. Each dance form is a system of structures at different levels. For instance, the minimal units in a dance are (1) sthana, standing position; (2) cari, foot and leg movements; (3) nrttahasta, hands in a dancing position. A configuration of these constitutes a karana. There are 108 karanas; one can see them sculptured at the Chidambaram Nataraja temple. Any two karanas constitute a matrika; a combination of two, three or four matrikas constitute, in turn, an angahara, an organized sequence of postures. Finally, an arranged sequence of angaharas constitutes a dance.
Dance is either margi or desi, the two categories that apply to all arts. Margi is the standard, formal tradition; desi is folk, variable traditions. Another classification of dance, as we have noted, is tandava and lasya in character.
In one sense tandava stands for the vigorous expression and actions and feelings regardless whether the dance is performed by men or women. Lasya, on the other hand, stands for elements of grace and softness and gentle emotions. These are usually associated with women because Parvati, Shiva’s consort, taught it to Usha, sage Bana's daughter, who then passed on the art to the women of India. However, since love is the predominant sentiment in lasya, it is also danced by men when their dance needs to express this sentiment. For example, Krishna's dance with gopis is in lasya mode.
There are three main components - natya, nrtya and nrtta - which together with other elements make up the classical dance. Natya corresponds to drama; it is the dramatic element of a stage performance. Bharata defines natya as 'a mimicry of the exploits of gods, demons, kings, as well as of householders of this world'. Nrtya is the rhythmic movement of the body in dance combined with emotion or rasa and bhava. Nrtta stands for rhythmic movements and steps. On this basis, the technique of dancing can be categorized under two clear heads, nrtta and nrtya.
Both rasa and bhava are conveyed through abhinaya or dramatic expression - angika (gestures of the body), vacika (verbal), aharya (costume and make-up) and sattvika (physical manifestations of mental and emotional states) - which govern natya. The vacikabhinaya of the natya is replaced by the music accompanying the dance. The musical accompaniment invariably consists of poetry or lyric or narrative which is set to music and rhythm and strengthens the bhava. The dancer also depicts those emotions through sattvika (voluntary physical manifestations of mental and emotional states) like paralysis, perspiration, hair standing on end, change of voice, change of colour, trembling, fainting and weeping and helps in the realization and experience of rasa.
Indian classical dance forms were nurtured with a purpose in the sacred premises of temples. Temple dancing was imbued with the idea of taking art to the people and conveying a message to the masses. The temple rituals necessitated the physical presence of mortal women instead of the ornate, carved figures of apsaras to propitiate the gods. The allegorical view of dance, used for the purpose of the pleasing the devas, was gradually transformed into a regular, service with deep religious connotations in the temples of the medieval times.
This was possibly the reason behind the origin of devadasis, the earliest performers of classical Indian dances. They were supposed to pursue the dance forms devotedly and excel in them. They lived and danced only in the temple premises, their vocation enjoying great religious prestige.
2.2 Middle period
In the medieval period, though the Natyasastra tradition was alive, yet there were departures and modifications. Sarangadeva, who in his Sangitaratnakara introduced the concept of paddhati (style) and the movements, spoke of basic movements under two categories: Suddha (purely classical or academic form) and desi (regional variants). The recognition of regional styles contributed greatly to the further development of the individual, distinctive, classical styles of the various regions. From the 13th century onward the important manuals of different regions, which include Nrttyaratnavali of Jayasenapati from Andhra Pradesh, Sangitopanisat Sarodhara of Vacanacarya, Sudhakalasa of Gujarat, Hastamuktvali of Assam, Govinda Sangita Lila Vilasa of Manipur, Abhinava Candrika of Mahesvara Mahapatra from Orissa, Sangita Damodar of Raghunath from Bengal, 'Adi Bharatam', 'Bharatarnava' and 'Nrtta Addhyaya' of the Sangitamakaranda from Tamil Nadu, Balarama Bharatam and Hastalaksnadipika from Kerala, the Nrtyaratnakosa by Kumbhakarana from Rajasthan, and the Sangitamallika of Mohammad Shah from north India attest to numerous regional variations.
The temples of medieval India also show that the sculptors had considerable technical knowledge of the art of dance. The Brihadesvara temple of Thanjavur (or Tanjore, 11th century) in addition to the Nataraja temple of Chidambaram depicted karanas, while the Orissan temples of Vithal Deul, Parmeswara and Rajarani (9th-11th century) described caris and sthanas (positions) as given in the Natyasastra. The Khajuraho temples of the Chandela kings (11th-13th century) and the whole range of medieval sculpture extending from Rajaputana and Saurashtra to Odisha and from Kashmir to Thiruvananthapuram (11th-13th century) portray a variety of dance poses and movements which are accurate illustrations of either the original styles or of the texts that were followed by the artists.
The different styles of classical Indian dance were practised and perfected by creative masters belonging to different gharanas (family traditions or schools) in different regions. These masters were the repositories of an invaluable oral tradition. They frequently contributed to the growth of their art despite their lack of basic education and academic knowledge of the Sanskrit language. In these times, the Indian classical dances, which were limited to the temple premises, were performed in royal courts, in the presence of the elite and the nobility.
2.3 Modern period
In British India, the system of education did not recognize the arts or crafts as a subject of educational curricula. Even temple dancing was forbidden. However, the masters of this art continued to practise it in the seclusion of their gharanas (family traditions or schools). The recent revival of interest in dance has helped the development and popularity of Indian dance styles which have spread beyond borders. In the early 20th century, Uday Shankar laid the foundation of what may be termed modern Indian dance as opposed to any of the Indian classical forms; his style came to be known as oriental dance. At the same time, art exponents such as Rukmani Devi, Menaka, Gopinath and Ragini Devi contributed to the revival of dance forms, which they presented in a manner easily received by spectators.
The presentation of Indian dance in Hindi cinema has projected modern dances to a global audience. Dance in early Hindi cinema was primarily modelled on classical Indian dance styles and particularly those of historic North Indian dancing girls or on folk dancers. Modern films often use a fusion of Indian dance styles with Western dance styles. It could be a combination or inter-mixing of Indian classical, Indian folk dance, belly dancing, jazz, hip hop and even folk forms.
3.0 Classical Dance Forms
Indian dance forms fall into two broad categories - classical and folk. The present-day forms of classical Indian dances are performed on the stage on various occasions. In popular culture, the adapted, or 'semi-classical', forms of these styles have been exposed largely through depiction in popular movies and television programmes. These dance forms include Bharatanatyam, Kathakali, Kathak, Odissi, Manipuri, Mohini attam and Kucipudi.
3.1 Bharatanatyam
Bharatanatyam is a classical dance form from Tamil Nadu. It dates back to 1000 BCE. Its inspirations come from the sculptures of the ancient temple of Chidambaram. In ancient times Bharatan?tyam was performed as sadirattam (court dance) by temple devadasis. E. Krishna Iyer and Rukmini Devi Arundale renamed sadirattam as Bharatanatyam in the 1930s.
Bharatanatyam was codified and documented as a performing art in the 19th century by the Tanjore Quartet of Chinnayya, Ponniah, Sivanandam and Vadivelu of the Tanjore Court, during the rule of Maratha King Serfoji II (1798-1832). The Tanjore Quartet completed the process of re-editing the Bharatanatyam programme into its present shape with its various items.
There have been several varieties of Bharatanatyam costumes in different periods. From the ancient texts and sculptures, one can see that the original costume did not completely cover the dancers' bodies. In the medieval times, however, the devadasis started using a special, heavy sari that severely restricted the dance movements. The modern costumes are deeply symbolic, as their purpose is to project the dancer's sukshma sarira (subtle body) into the material world. Also different dances require different kinds and nature of dress.
3.2 Kathakali
Kathakali is a classical dance form which originated in Kerala. Katha in Sanskrit means story and kali in Malayalam means play. So Kathakali is a play based on a story. Kathakali, like other classical dances of India, has its origins in Bharata Muni's Natyasdstra. It is an art which has evolved from many social and religious theatrical art forms like Cakiarkottu, Kudiattam, Krishnattam, Ramattam which existed in the southern region in ancient times. The main custodian of Kathakali is the famous poet Vallathol Narayana Menon who established Kerala Kalamandalam in 1930 for the preservation of this art form.
Kathakali, a stylised art form, is a blend of dance, music and acting and dramatizes stories mostly adapted from the Indian epics. All the four aspects of abhinaya - angika, vacika, aharya, sattvika - and the three components of the dance - natya, nrtta and nrtya - are unified flawlessly in this form. The abhinaya is presented in three stages: (a) word-to-word synchronization; (b) interpretation of the full line; and (c) abhinaya of the dancer following the singer. The dancers express themselves through organized mudras and facial expressions.
As far as the costume of this dance form is concerned, it is elaborate and designed to heighten the effect of physical strength. The large overcoats, the flowing scarves, the bulging skirts, the antique ornaments, the strikingly opulent head dresses with streaming hair flowing down to the waist and covering the back - all create enlarged figures well befitting the sculptured facial features and produce tremendously impressive impersonations. If the characters are s?ttvika (a righteous character or hero), the basic make-up is pacca (green); if the characters are r?jsika (a character with particular vices or anti-hero), the basic make-up is cutti (white); and if the characters are t?msika (an evil character or villain), the basic green make-up is broken up by red patches. Also, on the basic green make-up, an oval red and white design is made on the nose and on the upper nose.
Kathak originated in Uttar Pradesh, India. The name Kathak is derived again from the Sanskrit word katha (story): kathaka means 'he who tells a story, or has to do with stories'. This dance form traces its origins to the nomadic bards of ancient northern India, known as kathakas (storytellers). Its form today contains traces of temple and ritual dances, and the influence of the bhakti movement. From the 16th century onwards it absorbed certain features of Persian dance and Central Asian dance which were imported by the royal courts of the Mughal era.
There are three major gharanas (schools) of Kathak from which performers today generally draw their lineage: the gharana of Benares (born in the courts of the Kachwaha Rajput kings, the Nawab of Oudh, and Varanasi respectively), the gharana of Jaipur and the gharana of Lucknow; there is also a less prominent Raigarh gharana which amalgamated the technique from all three preceding gharana but became famous for its own distinctive compositions.
Aside from the traditional abhinaya pieces performed to a bhajan, ghazal or thumrl, Kathak also possesses a particular performance style of expressional pieces called bhava batana (showing mood or feeling). It is a mode where abhinaya dominates, and arose in the Mughal court. It is more suited to the mehfil or the darbar environment, because of the proximity of the performer to the audience, who can more easily see the nuances of the dancer's facial expression. Shambhu Maharaj was known to interpret a single line in many different ways for hours but all the Maharaj family have found much fame for the naturalness and innovativeness of their abhinaya.
As this dance form can be performed by a man or a woman, it has different costumes for them. For women there are two types of costumes, traditional Hindu and Mughal. The traditional Hindu costume for women sometimes consists of a sari, whether worn in an everyday style, or tied up to allow greater freedom of movement during dance. However, more commonly, the costume is a lehanga-choli combination, with an optional odhni (veil). The traditional Mughal costume for women consists of an angarkha on the upper body. The design is akin to a chudidar-kameez, but is somewhat tighter fitting above the waist, and the 'skirt' portion explicitly cut on the round to enhance the flare of the lower half during spins. The traditional Hindu costume for men leaves them bare-chested; below the waist is the dhota, usually tied in the Bangla style that is with many pleats and a fan finish to one of the ends. There is the option of wearing a men's banda too. The Mughal costume for men is kurta-churidar.
3.4 Kuchipudi
Kuchipudi is a dance form named after a village in the Krishna district of Andhra Pradesh. Renowned gurus like Vedantam Lakshmi Narayana, Chintu Krishnamarthy and Tadepalli Perayya broadened the horizons of this dance form.
Kuchipudi is non-narrative and abstract dancing. Usually jatiswaram is performed as the nrtta number. Next is presented a narrative number called sabdam. One of the favourite traditional sabdam numbers is the Dasavatara (the ten avatars of Vishu). The sabdam is followed by a natya number called kalapam. Next in the sequence comes a pure nrtyabhinay, a number based on literary-cum-musical forms like padam, javli, slokam, etc. In such a number each of the sung words is delineated in space through dance i.e. visual poetry, drsya-kavita.
A Kuchipudi recital is usually concluded with tarangam. In earlier times, the themes were related to Siva, but with the arrival of the Bhakti movement from the seventh century onwards themes linked to Krisha were also enacted.
The Kuchipudi costumes look similar to those of Bharatanatyam. The important characters have different make-up and the female characters wear ornaments and jewellery such as rakudi (head ornament), candravanki (arm ornament), addabhasha and kasinasara (neck ornament) and a long plait decorated with flowers and jewellery. Ornaments worn by the artists are generally made of a lightweight wood called burugu.
3.5 Manipuri
Manipuri dance is one of the main styles of Indian classical dances that originated in the beautiful north-eastern state of Manipur. The origin of Manipuri dance can be traced back to ancient times. It is associated with rituals and traditional festivals; there are legendary references to the dances of Siva and Parvati and other gods and goddesses who created the universe. The dance was performed earlier by maibas and maibis (priests and priestesses) who re-enact the theme of the creation of the world. With the arrival of Vaishnavism in the 15th century, new compositions based on episodes from the life of Radha and Krishna were gradually introduced. It was in the reign of King Bhagyacandra that the popular Rasalila dances of Manipur originated.
The rasa costume consists of a richly embroidered stiff skirt which extends to the feet. A short fine white muslin skirt is worn over it. Patloi is the typical costume of the female dancers. The lehenga is called kumin with mirrors and zari work intricately woven into beautiful designs. The women also wear a tight-fitting cone-shaped cap, garnished with a border of synthetic pearls, under a thin white veil. A dark coloured velvet blouse covers the upper part of the body and a traditional white veil is worn over a special hairdo which falls gracefully over the face. Krishna wears a yellow dhoti, a dark velvet jacket and a crown of peacock feathers. The jewellery is very delicate and the designs are unique to the region.
The kirtan form of congregational singing accompanies the dance which is known as sankirtana in Manipur. The whole community celebrates childbirth, upanayanam, wedding and sraddha with sankirtana performances. The male dancers play the pung and kartal while dancing. The thang-ta is a martial dance which has its origin in the days when man's survival depended on his ability to defend himself from wild animals.
3.6 Odissi
Odissi is believed to be the oldest form of Indian dance from the state of Odisha according to the various sculptural evidences available.
Archaeological evidences of this dance form dating back to the 2nd century BCE are found in the caves of Udayagiri and Khandagiri near Bhubaneswar. The dance movements, frozen in stone, continue to inspire Odissi dancers even today. For centuries maharisa or devadasis (temple dancers) were the chief repositories of this dance. Later, a class of boys called gotipuas were trained in the art. They danced in the temples and also for general entertainment. Many of today's gurus of this style belong to the gotipua tradition.
Odissi mostly derives its theme from the 12th century Gita Govinda by Jayadeva. It is generally believed that the composers fixed the tala and raga of each song after the model of Gita Govinda. Odissi closely follows the tenets laid down by the Natyasastra and the Abhinaya Darpana. Facial expressions, hand gestures and body movements are used to suggest a certain feeling, an emotion or one of the nine rasas.
The techniques of movement are built around the two basic postures of the cowk (a position imitating a square - a very masculine stance with the weight of the body equally balanced) and the tribhanga (a very feminine stance where the body is deflected at the neck, torso and the knees). There are a variety of gaits for doing pirouettes and jumps and also certain postures inspired by the sculptures.
The opening item is mangalacarana (invocation) where the dancer slowly enters the stage with flowers in her hands and makes an offering to Mother Earth. This is followed by an invocation to the deity of the dancer's choice. Generally, Ganesha is called upon to grant an auspicious beginning. The item ends with a nrtta sequence with salutations to God, the guru and the audience.
An Odissi dancer is adorned in elaborate Odiya silver jewellery. The dancer wears a coker (a longer necklace), armlets, bracelets, a belt, anklets, bells, earrings, each placed on the bun, and a sinthi (a piece placed on the hair and forehead). She sports an elaborate hair-do in a knot adorned with the tahiya (part of the crown), which represents a temple tower. Palms and soles are painted with alta, a red dye. The head ornament is called mathami. The dancer also wears the ear covers, bangles on the wrists, armlets and an elaborate belt. On her ankles are bells strung together on a single cord. A padaka-tilaka (a necklace with a locket) rests on her chest.
3.7 Sattriya
Sattriya, recently included among principal classical Indian dance traditions, has been a living tradition in Assam since its creation by the founder of Vaishnavism in Assam, the great saint Srimanta Shankaradeva in 15th-century Assam. This dance form originated in monasteries and then moved to the metropolitan stage. Shankaradeva introduced this dance form by integrating different elements from various treatises and local folk dances with his own rare outlook. Conventionally, this dance form was performed only by bhokos (male monks) in monasteries as part of their daily rituals or to mark special festivals. In the modern days, Sattriya is performed on stage by women and men. It is governed by strictly laid down principles in respect of mudras, footwork, aharyas (costume), music etc. It is performed with borgits (musical composition) which are usually based on classical ragas. For tradition performance, the instruments that are used are khole (drums), talas (cymbals) and the flute. Some of the recent additions are the violin and the harmonium. The dress is typical of Assam as the silk that are worn are produced in Assam, woven with meticulous designs.
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