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Performing Arts in India - Part 1
1.0 Introduction
India is a land of rich culture and heritage. Since the beginning of our civilization performing Arts i.e music, dance and drama have been an integral aspect of our culture. Initially, these art forms were used as medium of propagation for religion and social reforms in which music and dance were incorporated to gain popularity. From the Vedic era to the medieval period, the performing arts remained an important source of educating the masses. The Vedas laid down precise rules for the chanting of Vedic hymns. Even the pitch and the accent of singing different hymns have been prescribed. There was more of exemplary presentation through them than education or social reforms. Presently, these art forms have become means of entertainment for people all over the world.
2.0 Paintings
The style and variety of Indian paintings is a reflection of the colorful Indian culture. Indian painting is classified under the "Miniature" category. In this category drawings and paintings are done either on a cloth or on a piece of paper.
Presently, considering style and pattern, Indian painting styles can be categorized into seven special groups:
2.1 Madhubani painting
Also called Mithila paintings, they originated in Bihar region in India in a village called Madhubani. According to mythology, this tradition commenced when Janaka, father of Sita, asked his painters to paint the moments of marriage ceremony of Sita with Lord Rama. Traditionally, it was done by Madhubani's village women on the mud wall of the huts but later on the base was converted into cloth, canvas, and handmade papers.
Apart from the royal marriage of Ram and Sita, Madhubani art also depicts Hindu devotional stories and moves around deities like Krishna, Durga, Lakhsmi, Sarswati, etc.. Different natural objects like, the moon, the sun, and plant Tulsi (an auspicious plant in Hindu religion) is also found as the theme of the Madhubani pictures. In Madhubani paintings no empty space is left on canvas, the gaps being covered by different geometrical motifs, floral, animals, and bird pictures.
There are three types of Madhubani paintings: the Brahmin style, Tatoo style, and Kshatriya style. Painting on canvas is done with twigs, brushes, fingers, matchsticks, and nib-pens using natural dyes and colors, and is distinguished by eye-catching geometrical patterns.
2.2 Tanjore painting
Tanjore paintings originated from Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu in and around 16th century. Although it is one of the most traditional streams of painting style, it is also famous for its contemporary look, surface richness and flamboyant color range within the picture. Tanjore paints are known for their excellent versatility and this is the reason Tanjore painting works are widely popular as home décor items. Tanjore paintings are religious artworks of typical South Indian style and origin and look celestial in a puja room and elegant in other places. This art is also referred as 'palagai padam' in local dialect, which means a pious expression of love for Almighty, beauty, truth, and spiritual devotion.
2.3 Rajasthani painting
Rajasthani paintings - also known as Rajput paintings - originated in 18th century from Rajasthan, India. Etymologically, this form of art was derived from Persian miniature style. These paintings depict Hindu devotional themes and stories from Ramayana and Mahabharata, the life of lord Krishna, and different legends of Rajasthani war heroes. These paintings are found in a miniature form. In addition a major portion of Indian Rajasthani artwork is also found on the walls of fortress, palaces, inner chamber of royal court, and in Shekhawati havelis. The colors used in Rajasthani painting were created from different minerals, diverse plant sources, and sometimes from conch shells, and there was custom of deriving colors by processing costly stones, gold and silver.
2.4 Mughal painting
As with Mughal architecture, Mughal painting also reflects a special amalgamation of Indian, Persian and Islamic art styles. As the name suggests, these paintings originated and developed at the time of Mughal dynasty in India, between 16th and 19th centuries. The Mughal paintings in India circled around themes like battles, receptions, court scenes, hunting scenes, legendary stories, portraits, wildlife, etc. Apart from Indian museums and different Mughal buildings, the Victoria and Albert Museums in London too have a huge and extraordinary collection of Mughal paintings collected mainly from India.
Commonly called as Bengal School, this was a powerful art movement and a special style of Indian painting which started from Bengal. It primarily involved Kolkata and Shantiniketan, and spread all through India in the period of British Raj in and around early of 20th century. Initially the art form was known as 'Indian style of painting' and it was linked with Indian nationalism movement. However, the art was significantly promoted and supported by British arts administrators. For example, E. B. Havell, who was the Principal of the Government College of Art, Kolkata was an active supporter and admirer of Bengal school of art; later on this stream of art became the originator of modern Indian painting.
2.6 Pattachitra
'Patta' = 'Vastra' = clothings
'chitra' = paintings
Pattachitra is a special type of folk painting which originated from the state of Orissa. This form of pictures is painted on a cloth base; hence the name 'Pattachitra'. The practice of Pattachitra is closely associated with the devotion of Lord Jagannath. Apart from the mesmerizing evidence of sculpture and paintings on the cave walls of Khandagiri and Udayagiri, and Konark temple, there are other temples in Orissa where these pattachitras are found in numbers.
2.7 Warli Art
Warli Art is 400-year old Tribal Indian Art which originated in Thane Dist. from a village called Warli. It is a 2-dimensional painting work, with no specific angle or proportion. Warli painting looks uncomplicated and linear with optimum use of triangular shapes. Usually painted by married women, the cycle of death and birth was an inevitable subject of each of the artwork.
These seven streams of painting styles are different from each other but there is a cultural synchronization between all these styles, i.e. the fact that all these artworks are inspired by Indian history and heritage.
Indian painting style and tradition offers an artistic range that expands from the early civilization to this modern era of 22nd century. From being fundamentally religious in idea at is initial stage, Indian painting has developed over the years in becoming a synthesis of diverse ethnicity and traditions.
3.0 MUSIC
3.1 The Indus Valley Civilization
Little is known of the musical culture of the Indus Valley civilization of the 3rd and 2nd millennia BC. Some musical instruments, such as the arched or bow-shaped harp and several varieties of drums, have been identified from the small terracotta figures and from the pictographs on the seals that were probably used by merchants. The famous bronze statuette of a dancing girl, probably representing a class of temple dancers, clearly indicates the presence of music. Evidence of the worship of Rudra during this period has also been found. Rudra was later to become popular as Shiva- the supreme deity of dance, drama and music.
3.2 Vedic music
Vedic music is the earliest instance of the deep relationship between religion and music in India. Vedic religion was based on performing sacrifices in order to propitiate the gods. Music formed an important part of the rituals, which structured the sacrifice. Many features of this music later percolated in various ways and in different proportions into different kinds of Indian music, including Hindustani classical music. Indian classical music owes its origin to the musical chanting of the Samaveda, which initially employed more notes and finally settled on seven notes. In fact, the word sama itself is a compound expression and includes two entities: the first component 'sa' refers to hymns and the second component, 'ma' refers to the musical notes.
Vedic music also included instrumental music of various types. Music was used mainly for two functions: to propitiate deities and to accompany sacrificial offerings. Both solo and choral music were in vogue. Four major forms of music were prevalent in Sama-gayan, taken as a whole. Each kind of music effected different changes in Vedic mantras as were perceived to be necessary by the concerned musician. The veena, tunav, dundubhi, bhoomi-dundubhi and talav were the prominent instruments - representing the four major instrumental categories: autophones, membranophones, aerophones and chordophones.
The singing of sama was accompanied by the veena in accordance with a procedure that connected body-movements, gestures and correct intonation in singing. Seated properly, the singer was to touch the middle phalanx of the fingers of the right palm with the right thumb according to the pitch of the note intended. A disciple learnt this procedure by imitating his preceptor in pitch, intonation as well as in finger movements.
3.2.1 The Shiksha literature
Shiksha is the first branch of Vedic learning. It deals with the science of correct pronunciation of vowels, consonants and syllables. Basically six aspects are dealt with: Varna (syllable), Swara (notes), Matra (duration), Bala (articulation), Sama (a kind of balance in the total utterance) and Santana (the spacing of the words). Some of the well-known Shikshas are Panini, Yagnavalkya, Vashisthi, Katyayani, Manduki and Naradiya, the last being associated with the sage, Narada.
3.2.2 Guru-Shishya parampara
Music in India has been passed on in a tradition best described as Guru-Shishya Parampara (the Teacher-Student tradition). This method has occupied an important place in Indian culture. A guru is regarded as the metaphysical and spiritual father of his disciple.
The Gurukul system dates back to the Vedic period. In the Gurukul system of education, a pupil or shishya, after his initiation (sacred thread ceremony), lived in the house of his guru, or teacher, and studied the Vedas and other subjects under his guidance, for a period of 12 years. Gurus were expected to teach everything they knew to the disciple. The institution was accessible only to the upper classes. The gurukuls were well supported by kings who considered it their duty to make them financially viable.
There were four kinds of gurus: Acharya, Pravakta, Shrotriya and Adhyapak. It is from the Samhita period that we have names of Acharyas such as Angiras, Garga, Atri, Brihaspati and Vasishtha. There were two types of shishyas: one, who paid fees to the Guru was known as acharya-bhaga; the other, who learnt by performing domestic chores in the guru's house, was described as dharma-shishya.
The Gurukul was the direct precedent of the concept of gharana in Hindustani music. Of course, in a gharana the learning was confined to the scholastic and the performing arts, and there was no religious teaching.
3.2.3 Ramayana and music
The first Indian epic, Ramayana, was composed by the sage Valmiki. It was written in shloka form. The word shloka refers to a particular kind of metrical composition known for its brevity, easy tempo and lilting rhyme.
From the lavish use of musical metaphors in the epic, it is evident that the precise concept of music or sangeet had been adequately established and appreciated. For example, when Rama describes Kishkindha, Sugreeva's kingdom, to Laxmana, he refers to the lute-like resonance of the bees, the rhythmic croaking of frogs and the mridang-like sounds of clouds. Rama was an expert in gandharva, the 'classical' music of the time.
The term Marga Sangeet is also used in the epic to denote the accepted and prestigious mode of music. There were three important features of Marga Sangeet. It was created and propagated by Brahma and other deities. It was not meant for entertainment. It was presented before the Gods to please them.
The epic tells us that musical instruments were collectively mentioned as atodya. Four major types of instruments were identified. A wide variety of instruments were used such as the Veena, Venu, Vansha, Shankha, Dundubhi, Bheri, Mridang, Panav and Pataha.
The knowledge of music was widespread. Ravana the demon-leader was proficient in music. So was Sugreeva, the monkey-leader. Occasions of festival music were known as samaj. There were professional classes of musicians such as Bandi, Soota, Magadha and others, whose repertoire included songs in praise of heroes, their deeds, their clans or dynasties.
Ramayana, as an oral epic, was also propagated according to the musical norms perfected in the oral tradition. This was the pathya mode of music making, ideal for narration. This was the form employed by Rama's sons Kush and Lava, when they sang a narrative song in Rama's praise at his court accompanied by only a lute. Even today, the story of Rama, when traditionally narrated in India in different languages and regions, follows the norms laid down by the ancient Sage.
The use of technical terms in popular literature signifies that knowledge in the concerned field of study is widespread in society. Musical terms such as pramana, laya, tala, samatala, kala, matra and shamya regularly feature in the epic.
3.2.4 Pathya sangeet
Pathya in Indian musicology describes a special mode of making music. Bharata laid down six main features of Pathya:
- Seven notes (saptaswara)
- Three basic locations for tone-production (sthanas)
- Four fundamental ways of empowering tonal arrangements (varnas)
- Two basic intonation modes (kakus)
- Six embellishments (alankaras), and
- Six aspects (angas).
Pathya sangeet was not expected to entertain. Its aim was to inform and instruct. Even today wandering musicians create Pathya sangeet.
3.2.5 Mahabharata and music
Krishnadvaipayana Vyasa composed the epic Mahabharata in 24000 shlokas. There is less about music in the Mahabharata than in the Ramayana. One of the theories which explains this is that human life had become more complex and problem-ridden during the time of the Mahabharata, leaving less time for music.
Arjuna, one of the heroes in the Mahabharata had learnt these musical arts from Chitrasen gandharva. Kings maintained their own music schools to train princesses and their maids-in-waiting in the performing arts.
The names of the seven basic musical notes (shadja) have been clearly mentioned in the Mahabharata, which was composed around 400 BC. The epic therefore bears testimony to the long living tradition of Indian Classical music.
The use of music in festivals and other social occasions brings out the importance given to music in human life. There were, in fact, many classes of professional musicians like the gandharvas who catered to various musical and cultural needs.
3.3 Music in Buddhist literature
Buddhist sculpture and literature provide valuable insights into the evolution of music both in India and in the countries to which Buddhism spread. Jatakas written in Pali around 300 BC about the previous births of Buddha describe Buddhist monks singing and dancing to the accompaniment of instruments like the veena, vepamei, tunak and panak. They contain a wealth of material of musicological interest.
Sculptures based on Buddhist lore are a major source of information on music. Sculptures in Bharhut (200-150 BC) and Sanchi confirm that music flourished during the Buddhist period in spite of theological opposition. The opposition was because music was seen as a distraction.
3.4 Music in Jain sources
Jain literary sources interpret the prevalent music in important periods in Indian cultural history. Many terms are clearly derived from the Sanskrit tradition indicating an overall musical continuity.
For example, the Sthanangsootra lists the merits and demerits of vocalists. Interestingly, these nearly tally with Naradiya-shiksha. Jain texts list many instruments not mentioned elsewhere. Rayappasenaijja lists instruments in 18 classes. In all 63 instruments are itemised- bhambha, mukund, machal, kadamb and many others.
3.5 Music and Natyashastra
With its historical and deep-rooted religious tradition, Indian mythology holds music to be of Divine Origin. Narada was the first sage to whom the laws of music were revealed; Tumburu was the first singer; Saraswati was the goddess of music and learning; and Bharata was the first to draw up rules for theatre, of which music was a major and integral part. Natyashastra, or the Science of Theatre, a treatise on dramaturgy, is said to have been authored by Bharata sometime between 200 BC and 200 AD.
Natyashastra devotes itself mainly to theatre, dance and music. It also touches on the related areas of cultural life of India. It is the foundation on which Indian philosophical thinking squarely rests. It is composed in prose and verse, though verse predominates. The chapters on music contain descriptions of various classes of instruments. Gandharva music, the techniques of playing musical instruments and the rules for talas are explained.
Natyashastra also defines the Rasa theory. The theory states that "Rasa arises from a (proper) combination of the vibhavas (the Stimulants), the anubhavas (the physical Consequents) and the vyabhicharibhavas (the Transient Emotional States)". Natyarasa is the primary emotion generated by the interaction of the various bhavas. It is presented by the appropriate modulation of the voice, the movements of the body and the involuntary reactions that favourably impact the aesthetic sensibility of the spectator.
This theory of Rasa enunciated by Bharata and interpreted by his major commentator Abhinavagupta(10th century), has interested the followers of both the scholastic and the performing traditions in India for the last 2000 years. It has provided an invaluable aesthetic framework for the literary arts (chiefly poetry, fiction and drama), the performing arts (mainly dance, theatre and music), the fine arts (basically painting and sculpture), and the combined arts (like architecture).
3.6 The Gupta period
The Gupta period is often described as the Golden Age of culture, arts and learning in ancient India. Kalidasa, who was in the court of Vikramditya (380-413 AD), epitomises the artistic accomplishments of the Gupta period. He was a lyrical poet and a writer of epics and plays. The poem 'Meghadootam', the epic 'Raghuvamsham' and the play 'Abhigyana Shakuntalam' are some of his creative masterpieces that adorn the Indian literary tradition. The numerous references to music and dance in Kalidasa's works show the importance accorded to music in man's life during his period.
Kalidasa's works mention musical instruments like the Parivadini vina, Vipanchi vina, Pushkar, Mridang, Vamshi and Shankha, different types of songs like the Kakaligeet, Streegeet and Apsarogeeti, technical terms like Murchana, Swarasaptaka and Tana and qualities of voice like Kinnarkanthi and Valguvagam.
The Buddhist monk, Fa-Hien, travelled far and wide in the country for several years during the Gupta period. He noted his impressions about the remarkable prevalence of music in social life.
The music associated with the sacrificial hall was mainly the mantras, which were recited as well as sung. The words, their enunciation and their appropriateness for the ritual were the supreme considerations. Musical instruments were employed, but their role was secondary.
In the closed or semi-closed structures of temple-spaces, the effects of echo and reverberation were felt. The effect of instrumental and vocal timbres was more pronounced. Hence these were developed. This comes through in the number of instruments used, and the individual capacity of each to produce a greater variety of sounds. From the Gupta age onwards varied musical genres were practised within the temples.
The courtyard of the temple allowed another kind of music-making called the samaj. Visiting artists were also allowed to perform in these soirees. Yet another format that evolved in the temple space was the ghata-nibandhan, which was collective dance and music. Temple-spaces have thus fostered art, folk, religious and popular music.
The stage or the platform was a space, which was a necessary and important part of an auditorium or a theatre. Natyashastra elaborately described three kinds of theatre, differing in their size and shape. Music from the stage had to be heard as well as seen; hence the skilful used of stage space was necessary. Bharata's detailed instructions about the kutapa (or the orchestra) bring out the close relationship between the kind of music performed and the quality of stage space.
The princely court was the most organised performing space. All kinds of music were rendered from the princely court because all the external conditions could be controlled. Delicate effects and subtle nuances could be conveyed. There was also a much better interaction between the stage performer and the audience.
3.7 Music in Puranas
A Purana traditionally deals with five subjects: the primary creation of the universe, secondary creation after periodic annihilation, the genealogy of gods and saints, grand epochs, and the history of the royal dynasties. Into these core subjects, a Purana incorporates other religious accretions like customs, ceremonies, sacrifices, festivals, caste duties, donations, construction of temples and idols, and places of pilgrimage.The Puranas also bring out the prestige that music was accorded in human and social life. The Puranas were passed on from one generation to the next through the oral tradition. It is believed that all the major Puranas were in circulation by 100 AD. They were gradually compiled and consolidated between 400 AD and 1000 AD. Of the 18 Puranas, three dwell at some length on music.
The Vayupurana is regarded as a very early purana that originated around 300 AD. It refers to music as gandharva. The music of this Purana deals with the rituals performed during the different phases of a sacrifice.
The Markandeyapurana is one of the smallest puranas. It came into being between 400 and 500 AD. Through a dialogue between Saraswati and Ashvatara, a king of Nagas or serpents, it offers interesting insights into music. Saraswati offers a boon to the King who desires nothing but the knowledge of the musical notes or swaras.
The Vishnudharmottarapurana, which is traced to 400-500 AD, touches on almost all the arts, although having very little original material. It devotes one chapter each to Geet and Vadya.
3.8 The Evolution of the Raga
The music of ragas, as we know it today, is the culmination of a long process of development in musical thinking that aimed to meaningfully organise melodic and tonal material. A landmark step towards the evolution of the raga was taken when sama-gayan gave way to gandharva gayan as the mainstream of the sacred music of India. Dattilam, dated roughly 400 AD, is the main text for this music.
This text discusses parent tonal frameworks (grama), the 22 micro-tonal intervals (srutis) placed in one octave-space, the process of sequential re-arrangement of notes (murchana), and the permutations and combinations of note-sequences (tanas).
Dattilam also describes the 18 jatis which are the fundamental melodic structures for the jati-gayan. The jatis have ten basic characteristics, which closely resemble the structuring and elaboration of the contemporary raga in Hindustani music. The names of some jatis like andhri, oudichya may reflect their regional origins, as do the names of many Hindustani ragas today, e.g. Sorath, Khamaj, Kanada, Gauda, Multani and Jaunpuri.
Jati-gayan was entirely pre-composed. However, Hindustani music stressed improvisation which completely changed its nature. But the approach and concepts of Dattilam made the transition from sama-music to the contemporary raga-music significant and smooth.
3.9 Ragas, talas and tala-music
The present system of Indian music stands on two important pillars: raga and tala. Raga is the melodic form while tala is the rhythm underlying music. Together, raga and tala distinguish Indian music from many other musical systems of the world. The rhythm of music is explored through beats in time. Melody evolved as the raga through several processes; the tala resulted from a similar evolution in rhythm.
Thus raga, which means colour or passion, became a framework to create music based on a given set of notes (usually five to seven) and characteristic rhythmic patterns. The basic constituents of a raga can be written down in the form of a scale (in some cases differing in ascent and descent). By using only these notes, by emphasizing certain degrees of the scale, and by going from note to note in ways characteristic to the raga, the performer sets out to create a mood or atmosphere (rasa) that is unique to the raga in question.
The idea of the tala is embedded in the concept of time. In Hindustani music it is the artist who bestows quality on Time. A musician marks the beginning of his tala whenever he wants. He also creates his divisions in time. He thus creates the first beat. The artist subsequently puts in successive and equidistant strokes. He thus makes available to us the matra, a measure to compute musical time. The release of the time flow and the determination of the measure to compute it are the primary requirements to make a tala.
Cyclical and repetitive time-patterns composed of groups of long and short duration time divisions are talas, as we know them today. In every tala in Hindustani art music clapping (tali), tapping of fingers and waving of the palm (khali or kal) are analogous. These weave a pattern of sound and silence. Ancient treatises enumerate 108 talas. However, contemporary performances are normally restricted to about 15 talas.
Talas gain life and body when instruments play their role. Instrumental sounds, when expressed onomatopoeically, formulate sound syllables. These sound syllables, when fitted suitably to the tala-divisions, create thekas, the tala-expression that is actually played and heard in Hindustani music.
Thus the talas function as accompanying entities in Hindustani music and dance. They also serve as the basis for solo renditions in rhythm music.
3.10 The Muslim political backdrop in India
The advent of Islam at the end of the 12th century brought Persian music and culture with it. The attitude of the Muslim rulers toward Hinduism varied. Some like Aurangzeb (1658-1707) were strongly anti-Hindu. Others like the great Akbar (1556-1605) were well-disposed towards their Hindu subjects. Muslim India had a long, complex and eventful cultural history. Ultimately it became an inextricable part of the Indian cultural ethos.
3.10.1 The Delhi Sultanate : Amir Khusro
In 1262, when he was nine years old, Amir Khusro began to compose poetry. He composed almost half a million verses in Persian, Turkish, Arabic, Braj Bhasha, Hindawi and Khadi Boli. He is supposed to have enriched or invented qawali, qasida, qalbana, naqsh and many others forms of music. Varying degrees of secularity permeated these musical forms. The zeelaph and sarparda ragas are also associated with Amir.
Khusro lived for 70 years. During 60 of those years, that is, between 1265 and 1325, Khusro spent time in the courts of as many as ten different Muslim rulers. Each court he stayed in was culturally active and different from the others. Khusro's stay in Multan brought him in contact with Persian music, while his visit to Bengal exposed him to the music of the Vaishnavite tradition.
During his time at the ruler of Kaikubad's court, Avadh-based music and musicians secured a firm footing in Delhi. Three Khilji monarchs became his patrons successively. Each signalled a musico-cul-tural change. Jalaluddin, the first Khilji, was enthusiastic about secular music. Allauddin Khilji worked with Sufi saints through Khusro, and was instrumental in introducing diverse musical elements in Delhi.
The number of different patrons that Khusro had, and the places he worked in, enabled him to get exposed to and assimilate diverse musical influences. Khusro is said to have created a new system of musicology, called 'Indraprastha Mata' or 'Chaturdandi Sampradaya'. Khusro's Indianisation of the Islamic musical tradition complemented the Hindu tradition.
3.10.2 Raja Mansingh
Raja Mansingh Tomar of Gwalior (1486-1516 AD) was the driving force behind introducing and consolidating Dhrupad, a genre of Hindustani music that enjoys esteem even today. He replaced traditional Sanskrit songs by Hindi songs. He is also credited with composing three volumes of songs: (i) Vishnupadas (songs in praise of lord Vishnu), (ii) Dhrupads, and (iii) Hori and Dhamar songs associated with Holi. Mansingh's support gave pride of place to these genres. He also thus related music to the lives and language of the laymen.
3.10.3 Ashtachhap, Pushti and Haveli sangeet
Vallabhacharya propounded the Shudhadvaita Vedanta (pure non-dualism) or Pushtimarga (the road to grace). His sect was known as the 'Rudra Sampradaya'. The Vallabhacharya cult revived an older stream of music. The religious and musical procedures of the cult were systematized by Vallabhacharya's son Goswami Vitthalnathji (1516-1698 AD). The 'Ashtachap' stream of music was thus established (1607-8 AD). It was named after the eight musical acharyas or preceptors who composed the music of the cult. The legendary Tansen too came under its influence.
'Haveli sangeet' was the temple music practised by the 'Pushti Margi Sampradaya'. Nathadwara in Rajasthan was the main seat of this Vaishnava devotional cult. The cult has created a rich historical tradition of temple-based music described as 'Haveli sangeet'. 'Haveli' is a temple visualised as a palace that the deity chooses to live in.
The musical history of the post-Ashtachap period of Pushti-sangeet coexists with many developments in Hindustani Art Music The advent of the Dhrupad, Khayal and Tappa, the dissociation of dance from music, and the shift from the pakhawaj to the tabla, all happened during this period.
3.10.4 Tansen
Tansen, the legendary musician of Akbar's court, had his early training in the school founded by Raja Mansingh Tomar of Gwalior. Among the many works attributed to him are a treatise named the 'Ragamala', many 'Dohas' describing the 'lakshanas' or the attributes of ragas, 'Sangeet Saar', and 'Shri Ganesh Stotra'. According to some scholars, Tansen reduced the 4000 ragas and raginis of his time into a system of 400. He also reduced 92 talas to 12. He is said to have created many ragas like 'Miyan Malhar' and 'Miyan ki todi'.
Tansen's Senia gharana divided into two streams. His elder son Bilaskhan headed the Rabab-players gharana and his second son Suratsen the sitar-players gharana.
3.10.5 The Mughals - Music in Akbar's court
During the Mughal period, and especially under Akbar's reign, temple music took a back seat and Darbar Sangeet came into being. Music was composed mainly to eulogise patrons.
Information about music in Akbar's court comes from the "Ain e Akbari" of Abul Fazl (1551-1602 AD). Abul was a courtier in Akbar's darbar. There were numerous musicians in the court, Hindus, Iranis , Kashmiris and Turanis, both men and women. The musicians were divided into seven orders. There was one for each day of the week. Headed by the legendary Tansen, there were 19 singers, three who chanted and several instrumental musicians. The main instruments were the sarmandal, bin, nay, karna and tanpura. The musicians came from far and wide, and the music was rich and varied. Akbar's court was witness to a complete fusion of the Persian and Indian music systems.
Music in India, and especially art music, went through a metamorphosis for four centuries from the sixteenth, to result in the Hindustani music of today. This modern period saw an increasing number of musicological works in Persian, Urdu, Hindi and other regional languages, instead of Sanskrit. All these tell us the story of how Hindustani Art Music, as we know it today, evolved and took shape.
From the beginning of the nineteenth century many Indian scholars began to publish material on Hindustani music in English as well as in regional languages. This was a welcome addition to the works of the early British Indologists.
The modern period saw the birth of many of the musical forms dominant today, like Khayal and thumri. With the central Mughal power in Delhi weakening after Aurangzeb's death, there was a quick succession of emperors. One of them was the legendary Muhammad shah Rangile (1716-1748 AD). He was a loving and generous patron to many musicians. It was in his court that Nyamatkhan, popularly known as Sadarang, invented a new genre, the Khayal.
The nineteenth century saw the birth of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah's pageants, jogia jashan. In these pageants the king, his palace maids and his subjects paraded as yogis. These presentations of Krishna-lore sowed the seeds of Modern Hindustani Theatre. The thumri form of romantic and devotional music also became popular in the 19th century. The prototype of the thumri is traced to the 'Chhalikya' presentation in the Harivamsha (400 AD). The Chhalikya genre combined song and dance with dramatic gestures.
Another musical stalwart of the 19th century was Sourendramohan Tagore, (1840-1915 AD). The mission of his life was to make Hindustani music international in its appeal and reach.
In the early 20th century, two people revolutionised Indian music: Pandit Vishnu Digambar Paluskar and Pandit Vishnu Narayana Bhatkhande. Paluskar (1872-1931 AD) introduced the first music colleges. He gave an entirely new perspective to the education and propagation of music. It was his efforts that elevated music and musicians in the social hierarchy.
V.N. Bhatkhande (1860-1937 AD) pioneered the introduction of an organised musical system reflecting current performance practices. The historical tradition of music in India was completely disrupted during the medieval times. Since then, music in India has changed so considerably that no correlation or correspondence was possible between Sanskrit musicological texts and the music practised in modern times. It was Bhatkhande who bridged this enormous gulf. He successfully undertook the arduous task of restating the musicological framework underlying contemporary musical performance.
He did extensive musicological fieldwork across the length and breadth of the country. He meticulously collected data on music, and documented and analysed performing traditions. His literature on music remains unparallelled even today and is essential for a systematic study of Hindustani Art Music. It elucidates his views on grammatical structures, historical evolution, performance norms and aesthetic criteria relevant to Hindustani music. He classified a total number of 1800 compositions from the major gharanas accessible to him, dividing them in ten thaats according to his codification.
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