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Aurangzeb and the decline of the Mughal empire,
Mughal architecture & literature - Part 2
6.0 Decline of the Mughal Empire - Responsibility of Aurangzeb
The Mughal Empire declined rapidly after the death of Aurangzeb. The Mughal court became the scene for faction fighting among the nobles, and soon ambitious provincial governors began to behave in an independent manner. The Maratha depredations extended from the Deccan to the heartland of the Empire, the Gangetic plains. The weakness of the Empire was proclaimed to the world when Nadir Shah, the ruler of Persia (1736-47), imprisoned the Mughal emperor and looted Delhi in 1739 with an army of 50,000. It was a horrendous bloodbath on the streets of Delhi then.
To what extent was the downfall of the Mughal Empire due to developments after the death of Aurangzeb, and to what extent was it due to the mistaken policies adopted by Aurangzeb? There has been a good deal of discussion on this point among historians. While not absolving Aurangzeb from all responsibility, the recent trend has been to view his reign in the context of the economic, social, administrative and intellectual situation prevailing in the country as also the developing international trends, before and during his reign.
Aurangzeb was both a victim of circumstances, and helped to create the circumstances of which he became a victim.
Aurangzeb was ambitious and wanted to increase the geographical limits of his empire. It may also have been necessary to make room for an increasing muber of successors to the throne. However this cost him heavily in terms of men and money. His stubbornness towards the Marathas, Rajputs and the Jats and his refusal to grant them regional autonomy broke the former loyalty that existed between them and the Mughal Empire.
Auranzeb tried to impose a centralized system of governance in far-flung areas which were beyond his control. He failed to make good alliances to safeguard his empire and went on making more and more enemies. His fanatical religious policies alienated both the Hindus and the Muslims which adversely affected the stability of his empire. The wars of succession that plagued Delhi from 1707 to 1719 too weakened the empire. His successors were weak and they did not have the ability to overcome the various disparate forces and to unite the empire.
The infighting between the nobles and their internal divisions was another reason for disintegration of the Mughal empire.
The Mughal court consisted of four groups of nobles, the Turanis, the Iranis, the Afghans and the Indian born Muslims. The accession of weak rulers at the center made them strong contenders for power. They fought amongst themselves for more jagirs and high offices which were limited in number. They amasses income from the jagirs for themselves and cutdown the number of troops which weakened the military. The external invasions by Nadir Shah and Ahmed Shah Abdali broke the remaining strength of the Mughal Empire. It took a heavy toll of the imperial treasury and property and laid open the inefficiencies of the military and political administration.
It left India vulnerable to disintegrating forces from within and outside. The precarious condition of Mughal rule is evident from the fact that it was the Marathas not the Mughals who fought the third battle of Panipat in 1761 with Abdali.
The causes for the disintegration of the Mughal Empire can be understood in two different terms. One, that the Mughal system of governance depended greatly on the effectiveness of the emperor's personality. It was certainly one of the main imperial pillars especially capable enough to keep the decentralizing forces at bay.
The other one is strongly attributed to the so called crisis of the jagirdari system, caused by a shortage of jagirs and the over abundance of the jagirdars. It made the system exploitative and gave way to peasant's revolts misbalancing imperial stability.
6.1 Nadir Shah's invasions
Nadir (1688-1747) was the son of a poor peasant, who lived in Khurasan and died while Nadir was still a child. Nadir and his mother were carried off as slaves by the Uzbeks, but Nadir managed to escape and became a soldier. Soon he attracted the attention of a chieftain of the Afshar in whose service Nadir rapidly advanced. Eventually, the ambitious Nadir fell out of favour. He became a rebel and gathered a substantial army.
In 1727 Nadir offered his services to Tamasp II (1704-1740), heir to the Safavid dynasty. Nadir started the reconquest of Persia and drove the Afghans out of Khurasan. The Afghans suffered heavy losses, but before they fled Ashraf massacred an additional 3000 citizens of Isfahan. Most of the fleeing Afghans were soon overtaken and killed by Nadir's men, while others died in the desert. Ashraf himself was hunted down and murdered.
By 1729, Nadir had freed Persia from the Afghans. Tamasp II was crowned Shah, although he was little more than a figurehead. While Nadir was putting down a revolt in Khurasan, Tamasp moved against the Turks, losing Georgia and Armenia. Enraged, Nadir deposed Tamasp in 1732 and installed Tamasp's infant son, Abbas III (1732-1740), on the throne, naming himself regent. Within two years Nadir recaptured the lost territory and extended the Empire at the expense of the Turks and the Russians.
In 1736, Nadir evidently felt that his own position had been established so firmly that he no longer needed to hide behind a nominal Safavid Shah and ascended the throne himself.
In 1738, Nadir Shah proceeded to invade India on the pretext that the Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah had insulted the Persian envoy at the royal court of Delhi. He overran the western frontiers of Mughal empire capturing Ghazni, Kabul and Lahore in 1739. When Nadir Shah crossed Khyber pass the Governor of Punjab requested the Mughal empire to reinforce the defences in Punjab, but the then Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah turned a deaf ear towards his genuine request.
When Nadis Shah invaded Punjab, Muhammad Shah realizing the danger asked Khan Dauran and Nizam-ul-Mulk to lead the Mughal forces against Nadir Shah. But the two declined, so ultimately Muhammad Shah decided to lead the forces himself. The two forces met at Karnal, but soon the Mughal forces were encircled and defeated. The Nawab of Awadh Saadat Khan was taken prisoner and Khan Dauran was seriously wounded.
The defeat of the Mughal army created confusion in their ranks. The Nizam played the role of mediator and persuaded Nadir Shah to return to Persia on receiving 20 million rupees. Mughal emperor pleased with Nizam conferred him the title of 'Amir-Ul-Umra' and also appointed him the Prime Minister. However Nadir Khan was approached and was told that he should not get satisfied with such a paltry sum which even a provincial governor can give him. This had an electrifying effect on the Persian ruler and the grandeur of Delhi flashed before his eyes.
Nadir Shah entered Delhi along with the humbled Mughal Emperor. The keys of the Delhi fort and treasure had already been surrendered. An amount was also settled with Nadir Shah as a condition for his return. But a rumour spread that Nadir Shah has been killed. Riots were sparked off in Delhi in which few Persian soldiers were killed. As Nadir Shah heard of this he straightaway rode into the city where he saw the corpses of Persian soldiers lying on the streets. He was enraged and ordered a general massacre at all those localities where the bodies of Persian soldiers were found. Consequently on 11th of march 1739 citizens of Delhi were plundered and slaughtered, some historians say that nearly 0.2 million people were killed.
Nadir Shah on his return after plundering and slaughtering Delhites for 57 days, took with him the famous 'Peacock throne' built by Shahjahan and the legendary 'Koh-i-noor' along with 600 million rupees worth of jewellery, gold worth 10 million rupees and coins worth 6 million rupees. His total collection of booty was worth 700 million rupees and also took care to include in his train 100 elephants, 7000 craftsmen, 100 stone-cutters and 200 carpenters.
Nadir Shah's invasion did a irreparable damage to the Mughal empire. Mughal provinces across the Indus were seceded to the Persians. Later on inspired by the antics of Nadir Shah his successor Ahmad Shah Abdali too invaded India several times between 1748 and 1767 and plundered Delhi.
7.0 MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE
All the early Mughal rulers except Aurangzeb were great builders. With the coming of the Mughals, Indian architecture was greatly influenced by Persian styles. The Mughals constructed excellent mausoleums, mosques, forts, gardens and cities. The Mughal buildings show a uniform pattern both in structure and character.
The main characteristic features of Mughal architecture are the bulbous domes, the slender minarets with cupolas at the four corners, large halls, massive vaulted gateways and delicate ornamentation.
The few mosques and palaces built by Babar and Humayun are not of much architectural significance. Sher Shah of the Sur Dynasty who ruled over the Kingdom of the Mughals after driving Humayun out of the country, was not only a great administrator but a lover of art also. He built several forts, tombs and mosques.
The monuments of Sher Shah are a continuation of the Lodhi style. The mausoleums are octagonal in plan and have verandahs around them, surmounted by huge domes. The verandahs have three smaller domes on each side.
Sher Shah built the Purana Quila in Delhi. Started by him, it was completed by Humayun. Built of red and buff sand-stone, it is ornamented with black and white marble and coloured tiles. A beautiful mosque inside the Quila with ornamental arches, decorative panels, geometrical designs and inscriptions is an example of the development of architecture and ornamentation during Sher Shah's reign.
Sher Shah's tomb at Sasaram in Bihar built in 1549 is in the centre of a large square tank and rises al 46 metres high. It is a two storey construction on a terraced platform. The upper terrace has pillared domes and the two storeys above have a pillared kiosk at the four corners. The base of the large central dome has thirty two sides. The tomb is decorated with coloured tiles, very few of which remain now. Entrance to the tomb is through a domed structure.
Mughal architecture begins with Akbar who showed his passion for building by planning and constructing splendid edifices. During his reign Mughal architecture took on new forms. Akbar made free use of both Hindu and Persian styles. The use of red sandstone inlaid with white marble and painted designs on walls and ceiling are the salient features of Akbar's buildings.
Akbar constructed numerous forts, towers, palaces, mosques, mausoleums and gateways. A structure of note built during his reign is Humayun's Tomb in Delhi.
Humayun's Tomb: Humayun's tomb was built by his widow Haji Begum in 1565 AD in Delhi in 1569 AD, fourteen years after his death. The mausoleum stands in the centre of a square enclosed garden. The garden is divided and sub-divided into squares, typical of Mughal gardens. The lofty double storeyed structure is built on a huge high platform terrace which has a row of calls with arched openings. The central chamber is octagonal in shape and contains the tomb. Each side of the mausoleum has a large arched alcove in the centre with smaller ones on either side. It has a high marble double dome in the centre and pillared kiosks with cupolas surrounding it. Built of red sandstone with an inlay of black, white and yellow marble it presents an imposing picture. Planned by a Persian architect and constructed by Indian workers, it is a combination of both Persian and Indian styles of architecture. Entrance to the mausoleum is through two double storeyed gateways.
Agra Fort: A greater part of the fort at Agra was constructed by Akbar starting in 1565 AD and completed it in 1574 AD. Situated on the bank of the river Jamuna, it is a massive and grand structure. The special feature of this fort is the 2.5 kms long and 21 metres high circuitous wall of solid red sand stone. The stones are linked with iron rings so close that not even a hair can pass through. The entrance to the fort is through two gateways. The main entrance known as Delhi Gate was the ceremonial entrance to the fort. The other smaller gateway is called the Hathi Pol or Elephant Gate because of the two huge elephants on either side of the gate and was meant for private use.
The Delhi Gate entrance archway is flanked by two double storeyed octagonal bastions crowned by octagonal domed kiosks. A balcony separates the two storeys. The structure above the balcony has arched recesses. The gateway is decorated with beautiful panels of coloured tiles and marble inlay work.
The fort is surrounded by a deep moat. The fort formerly contained numerous buildings of red sand stone but these were later demolished in the reign of Shah Jehan who constructed marble pavilions instead. Some of the important buildings inside the fort are the Jahangiri Mahal built for Jahangir and his family, the Moti Masjid, and Mena Bazaars. The Jehangiri Mahal is an impressive structure and has a courtyard surrounded by double-storeyed halls and rooms. The corbel brackets, doorways and the chajja above them are profusely carved.
The elaborate architecture of the brackets seems to be an imitation of wood work. The planning and construction of the fort show that Rajput architectural styles were freely adopted.
Fatehpur Sikri: Akbar's greatest architectural achievement was the construction of Fatehpur Sikri, his capital city near Agra. The construction of the walled city was started in 1569 AD and completed in 1574 AD, and it contained some of the most beautiful buildings - both religious and secular which testify to the Emperor's aim of achieving social, political and religious integration. The religious edifices worth mentioning are the Jami Masjid and Salim Chisti's Tomb.
The tomb built in 1571 AD in the corner of the mosque compound is a square marble chamber with a verandah. The cenotaph has an exquisitely designed lattice screen around it. The secular ones include Jodha Bai's palace, the Panch Mahal, the Diwan-i-khas and the Buland Darwaza. Jodha Bai's palace is a large building consisting of rooms on all four sides of a courtyard. The centre part and four corners of the building are doubled storeyed. A small chapel attached has niches in the wakks for idols. The Panch Mahal is a five stored structure, each storey smaller in size as they go up, the last one being only a kiosk.
The Diwan-i-khas, an outstanding structure, was meant for the Emperor to sit in audience with his ministers and listen to disputes and discussions. A novel structure, it is a large hall with a giant monolithic pillars in the centre with a circular railed platform on top like a cup which is supported by a circular array of beautifully carved brackets. From the central platform branch out four diagonal railed galleries symbolizing Akbar's supremacy over his dominions. The gallery is continued on all four sides of the hall. The audience sat in the galleries and in the hall below giving it the effect of a two-storey building. Sitting in the centre, Akbar heard discourses and discussions on religions.
Buland Darwaza: A magnificent gateway was added later in 1571-72 to commemorate his conquest of Gujarat. Built of red sand stone and marble it is said to be the "most perfect architectural achievement in the whole of India". A flight of steps lead to the gateway which is about 53 metres in height and 39 metres in width. Entrance is through a huge arched domed recess. A broad rectangular strip bordering the archway has calligraphic inscriptions on it. At the corners are slender turrets. The beautiful perforated parapet and the row of kiosks with cupolas add to the dignity of the monument. An inscription on the gateway testifies to Akbar's religious toleration.
Jehangir, though a lover of art, was fond of natural beauty and so devoted his time to the laying of beautiful gardens such as the Shalimar and Nishat Bagh in Srinagar, Kashmir and to miniature paintings. Out of the few of his constructions of note are Akbar's tomb at Sikandra and the tomb of his father-in-law Itmad-ud-Daula, both near Agra.
Akbar's Tomb, Sikandra: The Mausoleum of Akbar at Sikandra near Agra was started by Akbar and completed by his son Jahangir in 1612 AD who changed the original design of his father. Designed on the model of a Buddhist Vihara, it is set in the centre of a square garden. The enclosure wall on each side has a gateway. The main gateway has four white marble minarets in the four corners. The mausoleum has five terraces, rising from the basement, one above the other, diminishing in size as they ascend. The red sand-stone entrance gateway is the largest and is richly decorated with inlaid coloured stone work. With its charming proportions, it is by itself a work of art.
Itmad-Ud-Daula's Tomb: The mausoleum of Itmad-ud-Daula, the revenue minister of Jahangir, and Nur Jehan's father, was built in Agra on the banks of the Yamuna. Started by Jahangir, it was completed by Nur Jehan in 1628 AD. A small rectangular structure in white marble, inlaid with semi-precious stones and coloured glass, it is a delicate and beautiful piece of architecture. It is the first pure marble monument and differs from the typical massive, red sand-stone structures of earlier Mughals. Situated in a garden amidst fountains, it has a square lower storey with four minarets in the four corners. A terraced pavilion forms the second storey. A central chamber inside contains the tombs and is surrounded by an enclosed verandah. A jewel in marble, "there is no other building like it in the entire range of Mughal Architecture".
7.1 Shah Jahan's constribution
Shah Jehan, the most famous of the Mughal builders had a passion for building. His reign marks the construction of numerous palaces, forts, mosques and gardens. His buildings are marked by the quality feminity, grace and elegance. They do not show the masculinity of Akbar's solid red sand-stone constructions. Mughal architecture reached the peaks of excellence during this reign. The main characteristics of his buildings are - the use of delicately carved white marble richly decorated with pietra dura or inlay of coloured stones and calligraphy in black marble. Some of his outstanding works are the Moti Masjid or Pearl Mosque in Agra Fort and the Taj Mahal, the Red fort in Delhi with the Diwan-i-Am and Diwan-i-Khas, the Jami Masjid in Delhi and the mausoleum of Jehangir in Shahdara, Lahore (in Pakistan).
The Jama Masjid in Delhi is the largest mosque in India and was built between 1650-1656 AD. It is constructed on a high platform and approached by a flight of steps on three sides. The main entrance is a double storeyed gateway and leads to a vast square courtyard which is enclosed by pillared corridors. The prayer hall, rectangular in plan has a facade of eleven arches. The high central arch is flanked by tall slender minarets with cupolas. White marble panels with inscriptions frame the arches. Three domes with alternate black and white marble stripes surmount the prayer hall. On the eastern corners, stand two tapering four storeyed minarets.
Soon after laying the foundation or his new capital city of Shahjahanabad, Shah Jahan started construction of the red sandstone Red Fort or Lal Quila in 1638 AD on the banks of the river Jamuna. The fort took nearly nine years to complete. Within the walled city, the fortress is in the shape of a rectangle 900 metres by 550 metres. The rampart walls are about 34 metres high. A moat surrounds the rampart. Two of the five gateways of the fort are three storeyed structures flanked by octagonal towers. These are the Lahori Gate and the Delhi Gate. Figures of two huge elephants flank the Delhi Gate. The main entrance to the fort is through the Lahori Gate.
A covered passage with shops on either side leads to the palaces inside the fort. Barracks for soldiers, audience halls, horse and elephant stables, and ornamental gardens are other features of the fort.
Some of the beautiful buildings are the Diwani-Aam, Diwan-i-Khas, Moti Mahal, Hira Mahal and Rang Mahal. In the latter three, all halls are decorated with pietra dura and patterns in gold and colour, and floors paved with marble slabs. The Moti Masjid was added later in 1654 AD. and is an excellent specimen of the balance and rhythm maintained in Mughal constructions.
The Diwan-i-Aam (Hall of Public Audience) is an arched pillared durbar hall. A white marble throne, embellished with coloured inlay work stands under a marble canopy. Below the throne is a marble dais inlaid with semi-precious stones. Behind the throne, the wall has beautiful panels of flowers and birds in coloured inlay work.
The Diwan-i-Khas (Hall of Private Audience) is a rectangular central hall with aisles of arches and painted pillars. The four corners of the roof have pillars with chhatris on them. The walls have the famous verses of Amir Khusro which says that "If there is paradise on earth it is here".
Taj Mahal: The Taj Mahal in Agra, a dream in white marble, was built by Shah Jehan as a memorial to his beloved wife Mumtaz Begum. Built on the banks of the river Jumuna, it was started in 1632 AD and took 22 years to complete. Marble from Makrana and precious stones from different parts of the world were used in its construction. Planned by Isa, a Persian architect, it is a masterpiece. The Taj is situated in the centre of a high marble terrace. A marble minaret of four storeys stands on each of the four corners of the terrace. The minarets are crowned with domes. The main structure is a square. A huge, vaulted recess with smaller arched recesses in two storeys on either side make up the facade of the building on all sides. An octagonal hall with an exquisite perforated marble screen contains the cenotaphs of Mumtaz and Shah Jehan. The vaulted ceiling is crowned in the centre by a large bulbous dome which tapers off into a foliated crest. Around the dome are four cupolas. The surface of the walls - exterior and interior and the cenotaphs are beautifully decorated with pietra dura, floral and geometrical designs. Borders of inscriptions decorate the main archways.
A mosque on the west and a corresponding structure on the east in red sand-stone complete the effect of symmetry. Situated in a large enclosed rectangular garden with fountains, ornamental pools and water-courses, entrance to the Taj is by a majestic gateway.
Bibi Ka Maqbara: Aurangzeb being a puritan did not encourage art in any form. Architecture and fine Arts declined during his reign never to come up again during Mughal rule. One of the very few buildings of this period worth mentioning is the mausoleum of his wife, Rabia-Ud-Daurani erected in 1679 AD in Aurangabad (Deccan) by her son. A poor replica of the Taj and half its size, it shows the extent to which art had declined. Its noteworthy features are the latticed octagonal white marble screen, which encloses the tombs and the beaten brass doors with floral panels and borders.
7.2 Sikh temples
In 1579, Guru Ramdas, the fourth Guru of the Sikhs founded the city of Amritsar in the Punjab. He first constructed a pool and named it Amrit Sar or 'Pool of Nectar' on a stretch of land gifted to him by Akbar. His successor, Guru Arjun Dev built a temple in the middle of the pool to enshrine the Guru Granth Sahib, the sacred book of the Sikhs. In 1803, Maharaja Ranjit Singh, the ruler of Punjab, improved the temple. The lower half of the temple was covered with marble and the upper half with copper over which a pure gold leaf of 400 Kgs was covered. Since then this 'Hari Mandir' is called the 'Golden Temple'.
It has four entrances in the four cardinal directions. A marble causeway across the water connects the entrance gateway to the main shrine. Floral patterns of coloured semi-precious stone inlay work, glass work and beautiful fresco paintings decorate the inner walls and ceiling of the temple. The architecture is a combination of Hindu and Muslim styles and lays stress on calmness and serenity.
A marble paved square construction adjacent to the Golden Temple is the Akal Takht or Immortal Throne - the seat of Sikh religion. The weapons used by the Sikh Gurus are also kept here. The temple with its beautiful domes throwing its reflection in the pool is a piece of grace and beauty. Other important places of worship in Punjab for the Sikhs are the Gurudwara at Taran Taran Sahib designed in Mughal style, the Fatehgarh Sahib at Sirhind where the young sons of Guru Gobind Singh were buried alive by Aurangzeb’s governor of Sarhind Wazir Khan, and the Gurudwara at Anandpur sahib where Guru Gobind Singh initiated the Khalsa.
8.0 LITERATURE DURING THE MUGHAL PERIOD
Persian and vernacular literatures developed during this period. Evolution of Urdu language was also witnessed. The kings extended their patronage profusely to this activity. During the Mughal period Urdu developed more in the Deccan than in Hindustan, where its development began only in the reign of Aurangzeb. The social content of the literature was inadequate. Themes are often taken from outside India. Such a literature was a necessary outcome of the medieval feudalism and aristocratic life. The contribution of the Mohammedans in the evolution of historical writing and prose-narration cannot be exaggerated.
A reformed system of education took place in the Mughal times. Primary school curriculum comprised learning of sections of Holy Quran, the practice of reading and writing the alphabet and other lessons on wooden boards. In the secondary institutions art of administration, arithmetic, algebra, sciences, accounts, economics, history, law, morals, literature and philosophy were taught. The aim of education was to bring out the latent faculties of the students, to inculcate discipline, to mould character, prepare for life and equip them for the professions. Religion was at the root of all studies. Teachers were held in high esteem. Universities were the residential type. Monitorial system was in vogue, education was free and scholarships were granted. There were Hindu institutions also corresponding to these rules.
Literature in the Mughal period developed due to Akbar’s reign. It may be classified under the heads of translations, histories, letters and verse. Translations were made from Sanskrit books. The famous historical works of the period are Ta’rikh-i-Alfi of Mulla Daud, the Ain-i-Akbari and Akbarnamah of Abul Fazl, the Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh af Badauni, the Tabaqat-i-Akbari of Nizam-ud-din Ahmad, the Akbarnamah of Faizi Sar-hindi, and the Ma’asir-i-Rohini of Abdul Baqi. The most accomplished writer was Abul Fazl. He was a poet, an essayist, a critic and a historian. His Ain-i-Akbari is famous. It is an encyclopaedia where useful information of all kinds is found and to which people in every walk of life could resort for reference, instruction and amusement.
Poetry reached the pinnacle of glory under the Mughal Empire. Babur and Humayun were poets and this tradition was continued by Akbar. Abul Fazl, Abdur Rahim, Abdul Fateh, Ghizali, Mohammad Husain Naziri and Sayyid Jamaluddin Urfi of Shiraj were the poets of that period.
Jahangir possessed an excellent literary taste. His autobiography is second only to that of Babur as far as content and style is concerned. His court was adorned by literary gems like Ghiyas Beg, Naqib Khan, Mutamid Khan, Niamatullah and Abdul Haqq Dihlawi. Some historical works like the Ma’asir-i-Jahangiri, Badshah-namah by Abdul Hamid Lahori, Shah-Jahannamah by Inayat Khan and Amal-i-Salih by Muhammad Salih Shah were composed during this period. Two distinct schools of writers had come into existence during this period, the Indo-Persian school and the purely Persian school. Abul Fazl was an outstanding representative of the Indo Persian School. Abdul Hamid Lahauri, Md. Waris, Chandra Bhan and Md. Salih were the representatives of this school. This school absorbed Indian ideas and thoughts. The poets wrote ghazals, Qasida, masnavi, and poems of adulation. Gilani, Kalim, Qudsi, Rafi, Munir, Haziq, Khiyali and Mahir were the other great poets. There were prose writings of other types for instance dictionaries, medicinal and religious books, astronomy, mathematics and translations from Sanskrit.
Aurangzeb had no taste for poetry or prose. Historical works were written in secrecy during his rule. Among the famous works during his period were Alamgirnamah by Mirza Muhammad Kazim, Muntakhab-ul-Lubab of Khafi Khan, Khulasat-ut-Tawa-rikh of Sujan Rai Khatri and Fatuhat-i-Alamgiri of Ishwar Das.
Provincial languages witnessed a great development during this period. This age may be called the classical age of Hindustani literature. Hindi owed its greatest development to a number of saints and poets. During this period, great writers like Tulsidas, Kabir, Surdas, Sundar Das, Chintamani, Kavindra Acharya, Keshava Das, Matiram, Bhushan, Bihari, Deva, Padmakar, Alam, Ghananand and others were in full bloom. Religion, heroism, human love and praise of the king were some of the themes touched by these writers. In Bengal there was a great development of the Vaishnava literature and there writers like Krishnadas, Jayanand, Trilochan Das and Mukandaram contributed greatly to the same.
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