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The Vijaynagar empire - Part 2
5.0 The Bahmani Kingdom - Its Foundation, Expansion and Disintegration
Allauddin Hassan, a man of humble origin assumed the name of Gangu Bahamani in memory of his patron, a brahmin. Hasan Gangu was the founder of the Bahamani Dynasty and ruled it under the title of Bahaman Shah. Bahamani was in constant war with the southern kingdom of Vijaynagar.
5.1 Firuz Shah Bahmani
The most remarkable figure in the Bahmani kingdom during the period was Firuz Shah Bahmani (1397-1422). He was well acquainted with the religions sciences, that is, commentaries on the Quran, jurisprudence, etc., and was particularly fond of the natural sciences such as botany, geometry, logic, etc. He was a good calligraphist and a poet and often composed extempore verses. According to Ferishta, he was well versed not only in Persian, Arabic and Turkish, but also in Telugu, Kannada and Marathi. He had a large number of wives in his harem from various countries and regions, including many Hindu wives, and we are told that he used to converse with each of them in their own language.
Firuz Shan Bahmani was determined to make the Deccan the cultural centre of India. The decline of the Delhi Sultanate helped him, for many learned people migrated from Delhi to the Deccan. The king also encouraged learned men from Iran and Iraq. He used to say that kings should draw around them the learned and meritorious persons of all nations, so that from their society they might obtain information and thus acquire some of the advantages acquired by travelling into different regions of the globe. He generally spent his time till midnight in the company of divines, poets, reciters of history and the most learned and witty among his courtiers. He had read the Old and New Testaments and respected the tenets of all religions.
Ferishta calls him an orthodox Muslim, his only weakness being his fondness for drinking wine and listening to music.
The most remarkable step taken by Firuz Shah Bahmani was the induction of Hindus in the administration on a largescale. It is said that from his time the Deccani brahmanas became dominant in the administration, particularly in the revenue administration. The Deccani Hindus also provided a balance against the influx of foreigners. Firuz Shah Bahmani encouraged the pursuit of astronomy and built an observatory near Daulatabad. He paid much attention to the principal ports of his kingdom, Chaul and Dabhol, which attracted trading ships froin the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea, and poured in luxury goods from all parts of the world.
He started the Bahmani expansion towards Berar by defeating the Gond Raja Narsing Rai of Kherla. The Rai made a present of 40 elephants, 5 maunds of gold and 50 maunds of silver. A daughter of the Rai was also married to Firuz. Kherla was restored to Narsing who was made an amir of the kingdom and given robes of state, including an embroidered cap.
Firuz Shah Bahmani's marriage with a daughter of Deva Raya I and his subsequent battles against Vijaynagar have been mentioned already. The struggle for the domination of the Krishna-Godavari basin, however, continued. In 1419, the Bahmani kingdom received a setback, Firuz Shah Bahmani being defeated by Deva Raya I, as has been noted earlier. This defeat weakened the position of Firuz. He was compelled to abdicate in favour of his brother, Ahmad Shah I, who is called a saint (wali) on account of his association with the famous sufi Gesu Daraz. Ahmad Shah continued the struggle for the domination of the eastern seaboard in south India. He could not forget that in the last two battles in which the Bahmani sultan had been defeated, the ruler of Warangal had sided with Vijaynagar. In order to wreak vengeance, he invaded Warangal, defeated and killed the ruler in the battle, and annexed most of its territories. In order to consolidate his rule over the newly acquired territories, he shifted the capital from Gulbarga to Bidar. After this, he turned his attention towards Malwa, Gondwana and the Konkan.
5.2 Mahmud Gawan
The loss of Warangal to the Bahmani kingdom changed the balance of power in south India. The Bahmani kingdom gradually expanded, and reached the height of its power and territorial limits during the prime ministership of Mahmud Gawan. The early life of Mahmud Gawan is obscure. He was an Iranian by birth and was at first a trader. He was introduced to the sultan and soon became a favourite, and was granted the title of 'Chief of the Merchants' (Malik-ul-Tujjar). Soon, he became prime minister or Peshwa. For almost 20 years, Mahmud Gawan domirtated the affairs of the state. He extended the Bahmani kingdom by making further annexations in the east. A deep raid in the Vijaynagar territories up to Kanchi demonstrated the strength of the Bahmani arms. Mahmud Gawan' s major military contribution, however, was the over-running of the western coastal areas, including Dabhol and Goa. The loss of these ports was a heavy blow to Vijaynagar. Control of Goa and Dabhol led to further expansion of the overseas trade with Iran, Iraq, etc. Internal trade and manufacture also grew.
Mahmud Gawan also tried to settle the northern frontiers of the kingdom. Since the time of Ahmad Shah I, the kingdom of Malwa ruled by the Khalji rulers had been contending for the mastery of Gondwana, Berar and the Konkan. In this struggle, the Bahmani sultans had sought and secured the help of the rulers of Gujarat. After a great deal of conflict, it had been agreed that Kherla in Gondwana would go to Malwa, and Berar to the Bahmani sultan. However, the rulers of Malwa were always on the lookout for seizing Berar. Mahmud Gawan had to wage a series of bitter battles against Mahmud Khalji of Malwa over Berar. He was able to prevail due to the active help given to him by the ruler of Gujarat.
It would, thus, be seen that the pattern of struggle in the south did not allow divisions along religious lines: political and strategic considerations and control over trade and commerce being more important causes of the conflict. Secondly, the struggle between the various states in north India and in south India did not proceed completely in isolation from each other. In the west, Malwa and Gujarat were drawn into the affairs of the Deccan; in the east, Orissa was involved in a struggle with Bengal and also cast covetous eyes on the Coromandel coast. The Orissa rulers made deep raids into south India after 1450, their armies reaching as far south as Madurai. Their activities further weakened the Vijaynagar Empire which was passing through a phase of internal discord following the death of Deva Raya II.
Mahmud Gawan carried out many internal reforms also. He divided the kingdom into eight provinces or tarafs. Each taraf was governed by a tarafdar. The salaries and obligations of each noble were fixed. For maintaining a contingent of 500 horses a noble received a salary of 1,00,000 huns per year. The salary could be paid in cash or by assigning a jagir. Those who were paid by means of jagir were allowed expenses for the collection of land revenue. In every province, a tract of land (khalisa) was set apart for the expenses of the sultan. Efforts were made to measure the land and to fix the amount to be paid by the cultivator to the state. [ note the similarity between this system and what the Delhi sultanate also followed ]
Mahmud Gawan was a great patron of arts. He built a magnificent madarasa or college in the capital, Bidar. This fine building, which was decorated with coloured tiles, was three storeys high and had accommodation for one thousand teachers and students who were given clothes and food free. Some of the most famous scholars of the time belonging to Iran and Iraq came to the madarasa at the instance of Mahmud Gawan. One of the most difficult problems which faced the Bahmani kingdom was strife among the nobles. The nobles were divided into old-comers and new-comers, or Deccanis and Afaqis (also called gharibs). As a newcomer, Mahmud Gawan was hard put to win the confidence of the Deccanis. Though he adopted a broad policy of conciliation, the party strife could not be stopped. His opponents managed to poison the ears of the young sultan who had him executed in 1482. Mahmud Gawan was over 70 years old at the time. The party strife now became even more intense. The various governors became independent. Soon, the Bahmani kingdom was divided into five principalities: Golconda, Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Berar and Bidar. Of these, the kingdoms of Ahmadnagar, Bijapur and Golconda played a leading role in the Deccan politics till their absorption in the Mughal Empire during the seventeenth century.
The Bahmani kingdom acted as a cultural bridge between the north and the south. The culture which developed as a result had its own specific features which were distinct from north India. These cultural traditions were continued by the successor states and also influenced the development of Mughal culture during the period.
6.0 Climax of the Vijaynagar Empire and Its Disintegration
As mentioned earlier, there was confusion in the Vijaynagar Empire after the death of Deva Raya II. Since the rule of primogeniture was not established in Vijaynagar, there was a series of civil wars among the various contenders to the throne. Many feudatories assumed independence in the process. The ministers of state became very powerful, and began to exact presents and heavy taxes from the people, causing considerable distress to them. The authority of the Raya shrunk to Karnataka and to some portions of the western Andhra region. The rulers were sunk in pleasures and neglected the affairs of the state. After sometime, the throne was usurped by the king's minister, Saluva. The earlier dynasty, thus, came to an end. Saluva restored internal law and order, and founded a new dynasty. This dynasty also soon came to an end. Ultimately, a new dynasty (called the Tuluva dynasty) was founded by Krishna Deva. Krishna Deva Raya (1509-30) was the greatest figure of this dynasty. Some historians consider him to be the greatest of all the Vijaynagar rulers.
Krishna Deva had not only to re-establish internal law and order, he had also to deal with the old rivals of Vijaynagar, viz., the successor states of the Rahmani kingdom and the state of Orissa which had usurped many Vijaynagar territones. In addition, he had to contend with the Portuguese whose power was slowly growing. They were using their control over the seas to browbeat the smaller vassal states of Vijaynagar in the coastal areas in order to gain economic and political concessions. They had even offered to buy the neutrality of the Raya by promising him assistance in recovering Goa from Bijapur and giving him a monopoly in the supply of horses.
In a series of battles lasting Seven year, Krishna Deva first compelled the ruler of Orissa to restore to Vijaynagar all the territories up to the river Krishna. Having thus strengthened himself, Krishna Deva renewed the old struggle for the control of the Tungabhadra doab. This led to a hostile alliance between his two main opponents, Bijapur and Orissa, Krishna Deva made grand preparations for the conflict. He opened the hostilities by over running Raichur and Mudkal. In the battle which followed, the Bijapur rulers was completely defeated (1520). He was pushed across the river Krishna, barely escaping with his life. The Vijayanagata armies reached Belgaum, occupied and sacked Bijapur for a number of days and destroyed Gulbarga before a truce was made.
Thus, under Krishna Deva, Vijaynagar emerged as the strongest military power in the south. However, in their eagerness to renew the old feuds, the southern powers largely ignored the danger posed to them and to their commerce by the rise of the Portuguese. Unlike the Cholas and some of the early Vijaynagar rulers, Krishna Deva seems to have paid scant attention to the development of a navy.
The conditions in Vijaynagar during this period are described by a number of foreign travellers. Paes, an Italian who spent a number of years at Krishna Deva's court, has given a glowing account of his personality. But he remarks: "He is a great ruler and a man of much justice, but subject to sudden fits of rage." He cherished his subjects, and his solicitude for their welfare became proverbial
Krishna Deva was also a great builder. He built a new town near Vijaynagar and dug an enormous tank which was also used for irrigation purposes. He was a gifted scholar of Telugu and Sanskrit. Of his many works, only one in Telugu on polity and a drama in Sanskrit are available today. His reign marked a new era in Telugu literature when imitation of Sanskrit works gave place to independent works. He extended his patronage to Telugu, Kannada and Tamil poets alike. Foreign travellers like Barbosa, Paes and Nuniz speak,of his efficient administration and tlte prosperity of the Empire under his sway. The greatest achievement of Krishna Deva lay in the broad toleration that prevailed in his Empire.
Barbosa says: "The king allows such freedom that every man may come and go and live according to his own creed, without suffering any annoyance, and without enquiry whether he is a Christian, Jew, Moor or heathen." Barbosa also pays a tribute to Krishna Deva for the justice and equity prevailing in his Empire.
After the death of Krishna Deva, there was a struggle for succession among his relations since his sons were all minors. Ultimately, in 1543, Sadashiva Raya ascended the throne and reigned till 1567. But the real power lay in the hands of a triumvirate in which the leading person was Rama Raja. Rama Raja was able to playoff the various Muslim powers against one another. He entered into a commercial treaty with the Portuguese whereby the supply of horses to the Bijapur ruler was stopped. In a series of wars he completely defeated the Bijapur ruler to inflict humiliating defeats on Golconda and Ahmadnagar. lt seems that Rama Raja had no larger purpose than to maintain a balance of power favourable to Vijaynagar between these three powers. At length, they combined to inflict a crushing defeat on Vijaynagar at Bannihatti, near Talikota, in 1565. This is also called the battle of Talikota or the battle of Rakshasa-Tangadi. Rama Raja was surrounded, taken prisoner and immediately executed. It is said that 1,00,000 Hindus were slain during the battle. Vijaynagar was thoroughly looted and left in ruins.
The battle of Bannihatti is generally considered to mark the end of the great age of Vijaynagar. Although the kingdom lingered on for almost one hundred years, its territories decreased continually and the Raya no longer counted in the political affairs of south India. The concept of kingship among the Vijaynagar rulers was high. In his book on polity, Krishna Deva Raya advises the king that "with great care and according to your power you should attend to the work of protecting (the good) and punishing (the wicked) without neglecting anything that you see or hear." He also enjoined upon the king to "levy. taxes from his people moderately."
7.0 ADMINISTRATION IN THE VIJAYNAGAR KINGDOM
In the Vijaynagar kingdom the king was advised by a council of ministers whieh consisted of the great nobles of the kingdom. The kingdom was divided into rajyas or mandalam (provinces) below which were nadu (district), sthala (subdistrict) and grama (village).
The Chola traditions of village self-government were considerably weakened under Vijaynagar rulers. The growth of hereditary nayakships tended to curb their freedom and initiative. The governors of the provinces were royal princes at first. Later, persons belonging to vassal, ruling families and nobles were also appointed as governors. The provincial governors had a large measure of autonomy. They held their own a courts, appointed their own officers, and maintained their own armies. They were allowed to issue their own coins, though of small denominations only. There was no regular term for a provincial governor, his term depending on his ability and his strength. The governor had the right to impose new taxes or remit old ones. Each governor paid a fixed contribution in men and money to the central government. It had been estimate, that while the income of the kingdom was 12,000,000 parados, the central government got only half the amount. Thus, some historians think that Vijaynagar was more a confederacy than a centralized Empire.
There were many areas which were under the control of subordinate rulers, i.e., those who had been defeated in war, but whose kingdoms had been restored to them. The king also granted amaram or territory with a fixed revenue to military chiefs. These chiefs, who were called palaiyagar (palegar) or nayaks, had to maintain a fixed number of foot soldiers, horses and elephants for the service of the state. The nayaks or pale gars also had to pay a sum of money to the central exchequer. They formed a very powerful section and sometimes it was difficult for the government to control them. These internal weaknesses of the Vijaynagar Empire contributed to its defeat in the battle of Bannihatti, and its subsequent disintegration. Many of the nayaks, such as those of Tanjore and Madurai, became independent from that time.
8.0 ART AND ARCHITECUTRE IN THE VIJAYNAGAR EMPIRE
Art, architecture, sculpture, fine arts and music got major boosts in the Vjaynagar empire. In the words of Percy Brown "Vijayanagara art as the supremely passionate flowering of the Dravidian style". Hampi or Vijayanagara has been included in the UNESCOs list of places of global significance and needs a master plan for its conservation. The government of Karnataka, together with the Archeological survey of India & assistance from UNSECO, the Smithsonian Institution and several countries has under taken gigantic work of excavation in the city?s 26sq kms of area.
8.1 Temple architecture
The Vijayanagara rulers were great builders. They built large number of temples scattered all over the empire but the finest flowering of temple building activity could be noticed in the magnificient temples at Vijayanagara now known as Hampi such as the temples of Vittalaswamy, Hazara Ramaswamy, Krishnaswamy, Bhuvaneshwari, Achyutharaya, Virupaksha etc. The Virupaksha temple at Hampi was rebuilt by the early Sangama A.D. Krishnadevaraya built the Rangamantapa of this temple in his coronation. The temples constructed in the Vijaynagar empire borrowed many architectural features from the Kadambas, the Cholas, the Chalukyas, the Pandyas and the Hoysalas. The shape of the pillars define the intricacy and beauty of the Vijaynagar temples. According to Prof. K NeelakSata Shastri 'the varied & complicated treatment of pillars was perhaps the most striking feature of the Vijayanagara style".
The Vijayanagara temples at Sringeri constructed in about 1380 A.D. in memory of Vidyashankara, guru of Vidyaranya is the oldest temple. The plan of the temple is unique in India, having an apsidal back on a Hoysala pedestal & with a Hoysala tower. Vidyaranya constructed this temple on the srichakra plan & also with reference to some astronomical conceptions. The mandapa has 12 pillars with marks of 12 Houses of Zodiacs. So that the Sun's rays at he dawn of the first solar month falls exactly on the indicated pillar.
The Vittalaswamy temple is the most ornate shrine at dedicated to Lord Vishnu. Its construction was started during the times of Devaraya II and was continued during reigns of Krishnadevaraya, Achyutharaya & Sadashivaraya .However it was not completed. Its courtyard is 500 ft by 310ft. A triple row of pillars surrounds the courtyard. The 3 entrances leading to the courtyard, east, south and north are surrounded by gopuras. The temple has 3 distinct compartments namely the Mahamantapa (an open pillared hall in the front), the Navaranga (a closed hall in the middle) and the Garbagriha. The carved pillars & the images of Vittalaswamy temple are a tribute to the skill of Vijayanagara craftsmen who have exhibited unparalleled expertise at handling granite like the Cholas of yore.
Throne platform or Mahanavami dibba has been described by Paes as the Hoouse of victory. This monument was built by Krishnadevaraya in 1518.A.D. in memory of his victorius campaign at Orissa. The highest stage of the platform is decorated with extremely beautiful carved in a style similar to horses, elephants,camels, other conventional animals. dancing girls, hunting scenes and the like.This throne platform was used for private audiences.
Krishnadevaraya restored many shrines in South India. He paid special attention to the temples at Tirupati, Srisailam, Kanchi, and Tanjore. He added huge gopurams over the main gateways of these temples & he^cethe^|re called as Rajagopurams.
Non religious architecture: The King's audience hall is a remarkable example of secular architecture in the Vijayanagara Empire. The audience hall has hundreds of pillars arranged in 10 rows of 10 pillars each. The remains indicate that they had square bases, cylindrical shafts and bricked capitals. Hampi is also the location for many constructions in the Indo-Islamic architectural style. Some examples are Kamal Mahal, Queen’s Bath, Watch Tower, Elephant & Horse stables, Market place, Royal Mint (tankashala), and Royal Balance.
Virupanna, Krishnadevaraya's treasurer built the Veereshwara or Papanaseswara temple at Lepakshi in 1535.A.D. and Chintalaraya temple ( 1535.A.D) at Tadipatri. These temples are famous for their beautiful sculpture & painting. Both are situated in Andhra Pradesh. The temple at Lepakshi is described as Ajanta of Shaivas because of its exquisitely carved sculptures depicting incarnations of Shiva, Sapta Rishis, Ashtadikpalakas etc.
The huge monolithic Nagalinga is another example of the prowess of the Vijayanagar empire's architects. It is 25ft high, 7 hooded & with outstretched tongues. At its feet lies a beautiful shivalinga. Besides Nagalinga, there are many images which exibit the remarkable sculptural arts. Some examples are Ugranarasimha, Kadalekalu Ganapathy and Sasuvekalu Ganapathy. The enormous statue of Ugranarasimha is carved out of a single boulder of granite was executed in 1528.A.D
8.2 Paintings
The Vijayanagara rulers paid more attention towards paintings & fine arts like dance & music.
The ceilings of Kalyanamantapa of Virupaksha at Hampi have paintings which beautifully depict Dasavatara, Girijakalyana and other religious motifs. The Veerabhadra temple of Lepakshi has several hundreds of motifs on its ceilings which represent stories from Shivapurana. The story of Arjuna's penance forms an excellent theme for a row of pictures & the painter has depicted the various scenes skillfully. One painting depicts Parvathi's marriage where many sages and gods like Vishnu, Vayu & Agni are shown as guests. Another painting depicts Parvati before marriage & Shiva playing chess with her. But the finest is the panel showing Shiva as Gowriprasadaka or appeasing Gowri. In this there is a happy blend of action, repose, and calm. Tnis shows that Vijayanagara paintings were of order.
Dance & Music were also patronized by the Vijayanagar empire. Karnatak music reached new heights during this age. Vidyaranya was a great scholar and was known as "Sanggetasaara". Purandaradasa made Karnataka music popular by composing simple songs in Kannada & singing them.
The Vijayanagara empire represented a magnificient epoch in the history of South India can never be forgotten.
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