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The Second battle of Panipat and Akbar - Part 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION
On January 24th 1556, Humayun died and was succeeded by his son Akbar at Kalanaur, who was only 13 years old at that time. At the time Akbar took over the throne the Mughal rule was confined to Kabul, Kandhar, parts of Delhi and Punjab. Akbar was campaigning in Kabul with his guardian Bairam Khan.
2.0 Samrat Hemchandra Vikramaditya
Samrat Hem Chandra Vikramaditya was a Hindu king in Delhi and belonged to Rewari, in present day Haryana. After humble beginnings as a salt petre trader, Hemu had risen through the ranks and became an advisor to Sher Shah Suri's son, Islam Shah. From 1553-1556, he had won 22 wars as prime minister and chief of the army of Islam Shah to extinguish the rebellions of various Afghans chiefs against the Sur regime. During the time of Humayun's accession to the throne he was on these campaigns.
At the time of Humayun's death in January 1556, Hemu had just crushed a rebellion in Bengal, killing the Bengal ruler Muhammad Shah in war. After this, Hemu made his intention of winning Delhi for himself known to his commanders; then began a series of wars in Northern India which he won. When Hemu attacked Agra, Akbar's commander's fled without a fight and as a result of this, large areas of Etawah, Kalpi and Agra provinces comprising present day Bihar and Uttar Pradesh came under Hemu's control. At the Gwalior Fort, Hemu amalgamated his army by recruiting more Hindus and then moved towards Delhi.
On October 6th 1556 Hemu's army faced strong Mughal resistance, leading to a brutal fight. Tardi Beg, the commander of the Mughal army, escaped, allowing Hemu to capture Delhi. This war lead to the death of 3000 Mughals, and Hemu was crowned at Purana Quila on October 7th 1556. During the coronation he took the name Hemchandra Vikramaditya. Thus was established a Hindu rule in North India, after 350 years of Muslim rule. According to Abul Fazl in the Akbarnama, Hemu wanted to attack Kabul and made some significant changes in his army.
These developments in Delhi and Agra were disturbing the Mughals in Kalanaur and many Mughal generals advised Akbar to depart for Kabul as the Mughal forces were not ready to face Hemu's might and they also wanted to be watchful about the new awareness created among the Hindus to liberate their country, but Bairam Khan was in favour of going to war against Hemu.
On November 5th 1556, both armies met on the historic battle of Panipat where thirty years earlier Akbar's grandfather, Babur had defeated Ibrahim Lodi, the then Sultan of Delhi (in the first battle of Panipat). The Mughal forces were charged repeatedly by elephants to break their line. Hemu was commanding his forces himself, from atop an elephant and it seemed that Hemu was on a winning track and Akbar's army would ultimately accept defeat and return back.
2.1 The turning point
However, Khan Zaman, a war veteran, knowing they had a much smaller army as compared to Hemu, had other plans. Warriors at that time, including Hemu, wore armour that covered their entire body, including their vital organs, except their eyes. After many unsuccessful attempts, a stray arrow struck Hemu's eye and he was knocked over senseless and almost dead in his "Howda" (elephant seat). Not seeing him in his elephant seat, Hemu's army was confused and this ultimately resulted in their defeat. Almost dead, Hemu was captured by Shah Quli Khan Mahram and brought to Akbar's tent in the camp situated at village Saudhapur in Panipat. General Bairam Khan wanted Akbar to slay Hemu and attain the title of "Ghazi" (Champion of Faith or War Veteran), but Akbar refused to strike a dead enemy and instead decided to smote the body to attain the title of Ghazi. Bairam Khan - annoyed by Akbar's hesitation - beheaded Hemu himself, after which Hemu's supporters erected a Cenotaph at the site of the beheading, which still exists in the village of Saudhapur.
After Hemu was beheaded, his head was sent to Kabul to be displayed outside the "Delhi Darwaza" to convince Mughals that the great warrior and the winner of 22 wars had finally been killed. Hemu's torso was sent to Delhi and hanged outside the Purana Quila on a gibbet. This was the beginning of Akbar's rule across India, a reign which lasted for almost 50 years, fulfilling the destiny of Mughals in India as rulers.
It is interesting to imagine that if the stray arrow would not have found its mark, there may not have been a Mughal dynasty anymore!
3.0 EXPANSION UNDER JALALLUDIN MOHAMMAD AKBAR
3.1 Early expansion of the Empire (1556-76)
During Bairam Khan's regency, the territories of the Mughal Empire had been expanded. Apart from Ajmer, the most important conquest during this period had been that of Malwa and Garh-Katanga. Malwa was being ruled, at that time, by a young prince, Baz Bahadur. His accomplishments included a mastery of music and poetry. Stories about the romance of Baz Bahadur and Rupmati, who was famous for her beauty as well as for music and poetry are well known. During his time, Maudu had become a celebrated centre for music. The army, however, had been neglected by Baz Bahadur.
The expedition against Malwa was led by Adham Khan, son of Akbar's foster-mother, Maham Anga. Baz Bahadur was badly defeated (1561) and the Mughals took valuable spoils, including Rupmati. However, she preferred to commit suicide to being dragged to Adham Khan's harem. Due to the senseless cruelties of Adham Khan and his successor, there was a reaction against the Mughals which enabled Baz Bahadur to recover Malwa.
After dealing with Bairam Khan's rebellion, Akbar sent another expedition to Malwa. Baz Bahadur had to flee, and for some time he took shelter with the Rana of Mewar. After wandering about from one area to another, he finally repaired to Akbar's court and was enrolled as a Mughal mansabdar. The extensive country of Malwa thus came under Mughal rule.
At about the same time, Mughal army overran the kingdom of Garh-Katanga. The kingdom of Garh-Katanga included the Narmada valley and the northern portions of present Madhya Pradesh. It had been welded together by Aman Das who flourished in the second half of the fifteenth century. Aman Das had helped Bahadur Shah of Gujarat in the conquest of Raisen and had received from him the title of Sangram Shah.
The kingdom of Garh-Katanga included a number of Gond and Rajput principalities. It was the most powerful kingdom set up by the Gonds. It is said that the ruler commanded 20,000 cavalry, a large infantry and 1000 elephants. We do not know, however, to what extent these figures are dependable. Sangram Shah had further strengthened his position by marrying off his son to a princess of the famous Chandella rulers of Mahoba.
This princess, who is famous as Durgavati, became a widow soon afterwards, But she installed her minor son on the throne and ruled the country with great vigour and courage. She was a good marksman, both with guns and bow and arrow. She was fond of hunting and, according to a contemporary, "it was her custom that whenever she heard that a tiger had appeared she did not drink water tiil she had shot it". She fought many successful battles against her neighbours, including Baz Bahadur of Malwa. These border conflicts apparently continued even after Malwa had been conquered by the Mughals. Meanwhile, the cupidity of Asaf Khan, the Mughal governor of Allahabad, was roused by the stories of the fabulous wealth and the beauty of the Rani. Asaf Khan advanced with 10,000 cavalry from the side of Bundelkhand. Some of the semi-independent rulers of Garha found it a convenient moment to throw off the Gond yoke.
The Rani was thus left with a small force. Though wounded, she fought on gallantly. Finding that the battle was lost and that she was in danger of being captured, she stabbed herself to death. Asaf Khan then stormed the capital, Chauragarh, near modern Jabalpur. So much plunder in jewels, gold silver and other things were taken that it is impossible to compute even a fraction of it, says Abul Fazl. "Out of all the plunder Asaf Khan sent only two hundred elephants to the court, and retained all the rest for himself". Kamaladevi, the younger sister of the Rani, was sent to the court.
During the next ten years, Akbar brought major parts of Rajasthan under his control and also conquered Gujarat and Bengal. A major step in his campaign against the Rajputs was the siege of Chittor. This redoubtable fortress, which had faced a number of sieges in its history, was considered a key to central Rajasthan. It commanded the shortest route from Agra td Gujarat. But above all, it was a symbol of the Rajput spirit of resistance. Akbar realised that without conquering Chittor; he could not induce the other Rajput rulers to accept his suzerainty. Chittor fell (1568) after a gallant siege of six months. At the advice of his nobles, Rana Udai Singh had retired to the hills, leaving the famous warriors Jaimal and Patti, in charge of the fort. Many peasants from the surrounding area had also taken shelter within the fort and actively aided the defenders. When the Mughals stormed the fort, these peasants and many of the Rajput warriors were massacred. The Rajput warriors died after extracting as much vengeance as possible.
After this, Akbar turned his attention to Bengal. The Afghans had continued to dominate Bengal and Bihar. They had also overrun Orissa and killed its ruler. However, in order not to give offence to the Mughals, the Afghan ruler had not formally declared himself king, but read the Khutba in Akbar's name. Internal fights among the Afghans, and the declaration of independence by the new ruler, Daud Khan, gave Akbar the opportunity he was seeking. Akbar advanced with a strong flotilla of boats accompanying him. The Afghan king was believed to possess a large army consisting of 40,000 well-mounted cavalry, an infantry of about 1,50,000, several thousand guns and elephants, and a strong flotilla of war boats. If Akbar had not been as careful and the Afghans had a better leader, the contest between Humayun and Sher Shah might well have been repeated. Akbar first captured Patna, thus securing Mughal communications in Bihar. He then returned to Agra, leaving Khan-i-Khanan Munaim Khan, an experienced officer, in charge of the campaign. The Mughal armies invaded Bengal and, after hard campaigning, Daud was forced to sue for peace. He rose in rebellion soon afterwards. Though the Mughal position in Bengal and Bihar was still weak, the Mughal armies were better organised and led. In a stiff battle in Bihar in 1576, Daud Khan was defeated and executed on the spot.
3.2 Rana Pratap and the Battle of the Haldi Ghati
Rana Pratap Singh of the Sisodia ascended the throne of Mewar in February 1572. The fertile eastern half of his kingdom, commanded by the ancient forts of Chittor and Ranthambhor, had been occupied by the Mughal Empire. The new Rana thus had very few resources to continue the resistance against the Mughals. Fortunately that year the Mughal Emperor Akbar began his conquest of Gujarat, and this gave Pratap time to consolidate his rule.
In 1568, during the reign of Udai Singh II, Chittor was conquered by the Mughal emperor Akbar. The third Jauhar of Chittor transpired, with the ladies of the fort finding "safety from personal dishonour in the devouring element (fire)," while the remaining menfolk sallied forth to certain death in the battlefield.
Prior to this calamity, Udai Singh and his family had wisely moved to the safety of the nearby hills. He later moved base to another location in the foothills of the Aravalli Range. This new base gradually became the city of Udaipur, named after him. Udai Singh wanted Jagmal, his favourite son, to succeed him but his senior nobles wanted Pratap, the eldest son, to be their king. During the coronation ceremony Jagmal was physically moved out of the palace and Pratap was made the king. Pratap did not want to go against the wishes of his father but Rajput nobles convinced him that Jagmal was not fit to rule in the troubled times of the day. It was the beginning of a career of struggle and hardship.
However, Maharana Pratap never accepted Akbar as ruler of India, and fought Akbar all his life. Akbar first tried diplomacy to win over Maharana Pratap but nothing worked. Pratap maintained that he had no intention to fight with Akbar but he could not bow down to Akbar and accept him as the ruler. Some scholars argue that there was some possibility that Maharana could have become friends with Akbar in the siege of Chittor. Akbar killed 30,000 civilian, unarmed residents of Chittor, because they refused to convert to Islam. This left a lasting impression on Maharana's mind and he decided he could not bow to such an injustice and cruelty.
On June 21, 1576 (June 18 by other calculations), the two armies met at Haldighati, near the town of Gogunda in present-day Rajasthan. While accounts vary as to the exact strength of the two armies, all sources concur that the Mughal forces greatly outnumbered Pratap's men. The battle of Haldighati, a historic event in the annals of Rajputana, lasted only four hours. In this short period, Pratap's men essayed many brave exploits on the field. Folklore has it that Pratap personally attacked Man Singh: his horse Chetak placed its front feet on the trunk of Man Singh's elephant and Pratap threw his lance; Man Singh ducked, and the mahout was killed.
However, the numerical superiority of the Mughal army and their artillery finally began to tell. Seeing that the battle was lost, Pratap's generals prevailed upon him to flee the field so as to be able to fight another day. To facilitate Pratap's escape, one of his lieutenants, a member of the Jhala clan, donned Pratap's distinctive garments and took his place in the battlefield. He was soon killed. Meanwhile, riding his trusty steed Chetak, Pratap made good his escape to the hills.
The impact of the battle on the Mughal army was also significant. In terms of numbers the Mughal army suffered heavier losses. This was also because of the intensive arrow showers by the Bhil tribes of the surrounding mountains who had aided with Pratap. To honour their contribution, a Bhil warrior was placed next to Pratap in the Royal Coat of Arms of Mewar.
The battle of Haldighati is considered to be the first major breakthrough of Rajputs against the Mughals since the Second Battle of Khanwa in 1527, which was fought between Rana Sanga (grandfather of Maharana Pratap), and the Mughal Babur (grandfather of Akbar). It is regarded with a degree of significance by many Rajput families.
Pratap retreated into the hilly wilderness of the Aravallis and continued his struggle. His one attempt at open confrontation having thus failed, Pratap resumed the tactics of guerilla warfare. Using the hills as his base, Pratap harassed the large and therefore awkward Mughal forces in their encampments. He ensured that the Mughal occupying force in Mewar never knew peace: Akbar despatched three more expeditions to ferret Pratap out of his mountainous hideouts, but they all failed. During this era, Pratap received much financial assistance from Bhamashah, a very rich well-wisher. The Bhil tribals of the Aravalli hills provided Pratap with their support during times of war and their expertise in living off the forests during times of peace. Thus the years passed. As James Tod writes: "There is not a pass in the alpine Aravalli that is not sanctified by some deed of the great freedom fighter, Maharana Pratap Singh; some brilliant victory or, more often, some glorious defeat." On one occasion, the Bhils saved the Rajput women and children in the nick of time by conveying them into the depths of the mines at Zawar. Later, Pratap relocated to Chavand in the mountainous southeastern area of Mewar. Still harassed by the Mughals, the exiles survived in those ravines for many years by subsisting on wild berries and by hunting and fishing.
Maharana Pratap died of injuries sustained in a hunting accident. He died at Chavand, on January 29, 1597, aged fifty-six. It is said that as he lay dying, Pratap made his son and successor, Amar Singh, swear to maintain eternal conflict against the Mughals.
3.3 The Mughal conquest of Deccan
Deccan policy of the Mughal dynasty was weak during the reign of Babur and Humayun. When Babur attacked India there were six Muslim states, viz. Khandesh, Berar, Ahmednagar, Bijapur, Golconda and Bidar and one Hindu state Vijayanagara in the south. According to Babur the state of Vijayanagara was the strongest among them. However Babur and Humayun could not pay any attention towards the south. By the time, Akbar interfered in the politics of the Deccan the political situation had changed there. In January 1565 A.D. the combined forces of Bijapur, Golconda, Bidar and Ahmednagar defeated the army of Vijayanagara in the battle at Talikota and completely ruined the power of Vijayanagara. Akbar began to extend his empire towards the south and the rest of the Mughal emperors till Aurangzeb followed his policy.
Aurangazeb tried to destroy the Maratha empire and got some initial successes. However these successes were short lived.
Babur could pay no attention towards the south. During the reign of Humayun there was no planned policy towards the Deccan. Akbar was the first among the Mughal emperors who planned to conquer the Deccan after completing his conquest in the north.
In 1591 A.D., Akbar sent his ambassadors to Khandesh, Ahmednagar, Bijapur and Golconda and asked them to accept his sovereignty. After many years of hard fighting the Mughals succeeded in capturing the territories and forts of Berar, Ahmednagar and Daulatabad. The Mughals attacked Khandesh, captured the forts of Burhanpur and Asirgarh and finally annexed all territories of Khandesh to the empire. Akbar failed to take any action against Bijapur and Golconda during his life-time. Thus, Akbar annexed Khandesh, captured a part of the territory of Ahmednagar, occupied a few strong forts like Daulatabad, Ahmednagar, Burhanpur, Asirgarh etc., and thus not only established the power of the Mughals in the Deccan but also paved the way for the conquest of the Deccan for his successors. It was here that the mighty Maratha warrior and the founder of Swarajya - Shivaji Bhonsle - was to appear some decades later.
Jahangir continued the policy of his father towards the Deccan. He attempted to annex Ahmednagar and force the rulers of Bijapur and Golconda to accept his suzerainty. But, the Mughals met a serious challenge to their designs by Malik Ambar, the wazir of Ahmednagar. Malik Ambar improved the economy of Ahmednagar, trained Maratha soldiers in guerilla system of warfare, fought aggressive wars against the Mughals and during the early period of the reign of Jahangir recovered the fort of Ahmednagar and some other territory of the state of Ahmednagar from the Mughals. In 1617 A.D., prince Khurram attacked Ahmednagar and forced it to sign a treaty by which Ahmednagar surrendered the fort of Ahmednagar and the territory of Balaghat to the Mughals. Jahangir gave the title of Shah Jahan to prince Khurram at that very time. But Ahmednagar was not prepared to accept the sovereignty of the Mughals and started fighting against them again. However, peace was again signed between the two in 1621 A.D. by which Ahmednagar surrendered a part of its territory to the Mughals and also paid rupees eighteen lakhs in cash. Bijapur and Golconda which had helped Ahmednagar also paid rupees twelve lakhs and rupees twenty lakhs respectively to the Mughals.
Shah Jahan also attempted either to annex the kingdoms of the Deccan or force them to accept the suzerainty of the emperor. He was a capable commander and understood the politics of the Deccan well. The death of Malik Ambar gave him good chance to put pressure on Ahmednagar and eventually Ahmednagar was annexed to the Mughal Empire. Aurangzeb, when appointed as governor of the Deccan for the second time in 1652 A.D., pressurised Golconda because it had failed to pay the annual tribute to the Mughals. Aurangzeb waited for an opportunity and he got it when Mir Jumla, one of the most prominent nobles of the Sultan, quarreled with him and sought protection from Aurangzeb. Aurangzeb captured Hyderabad and besieged the Golconda fort. But before he could capture it he received orders of Shah Jahan to raise the siege. Therefore, a treaty was signed between the two by which Golconda accepted the suzerainty of the Mughal emperor.
The process of conquering the south was slow but the Mughals finally succeeded during the reign of Aurangzeb. The Marathas had established an independent kingdom in the Deccan at that very time when Aurangzeb was bent upon to conquer the entire south. The Maratha fought back for the independence of Maharashtra and finally succeeded. Thus, the Deccan policy of the great Mughals initially succeeded but ultimately failed.
Aurangzel’s policy towards the Deccan had political as well as religious purpose. The extension of the empire was one purpose of Aurangzeb. Probably it is believed that extinction of the states of Bijapur and Golconda was a prior necessity for the destruction of the power of the Marathas in the Deccan. Besides this political motive, he desired to annex these states because their rulers were Shias. Bijapur had failed to fulfill the terms of the treaty of 1657 A.D. The political situation was also very vulnerable because Adil Shah died in 1672 A.D. and was succeeded by his four-year son, Sikandar Adil Shah. The Mughals took advantage of it and attacked Bijapur in 1676 A.D. but with no results till Aurangzeb himself reached the Deccan. Bijapur was finally annexed to the Mughal Empire and so was Golconda. The conquests of Bijapur and Golconda did not complete the conquest of the Deccan by Aurangzeb.
The Deccan policy of the Mughals reached the pinnacle of its success during the rule of Aurangzeb. But it was a temporary success. Aurangzeb failed to consolidate his success. The Marathas rose against him and brought about the collapse of his Deccan policy. The failure of the Deccan policy of Aurangzeb contributed to the disintegration of the Mughal Empire.
3.4 Rise of Malik Ambar and frustration of Mughal attempt of consolidation
After the fall of Ahmadnagar and capture of Bahadur Nizam Shah by the Mughals, the states of Ahmadnagar would have disintegrated and different parts of it would have, in all probabability, been swallowed up by the neighouring states but for the rise of a remarkable man, Malik Ambar. He was an Abyssinian, born in Ethiopia. It seems that his poor parents sold him at the slave market of Baghdad. In course of time, he was purchased by a merchant who treated him well and brought him to the deccan which was a land of promise. Malik Ambar rose in the service of Changez Khan, one of the famous and influential nobles of Murtaza Nizam Shah. When the Mughal invaded Ahmadnagar, Ambar at first went to Bijapur to try his luck there. But he soon came back and enrolled himself in the powerfdul Habshi (Abyssinian) party which was opposed to Chand Bibi. After the fall of Ahmadnagar, Malik Ambar found a Nizamshahi prince and with the tacit support of the ruler of Bijapur, set him up as Murtaza Nizam Shah II, with himself as the Peshwa - a title which had been common in Ahmadnagar much earlier.
Malik Ambar gathered around him a large band of Maratha troopets or bargis. The Marathas were adept in rapid movements, and in plundering and cutting off the supplies of the enemy troops. Although this guerilla mode of warfare was traditional with the Marathas in the Deccan, the Mughals were not used to it With the help of the Marathas, Ambar made it difficult for the Mughals to consolidate their position in Berar, Ahmadnagar and Balaghat.
The Mughal commander in the Deccan at the time was Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan, a shrewd and wily politician and an able soldier. He inflicted a crushing defeat on Ambar in 1601 in Telangana at a place called Nander. However, he decided to make friends with Ambar since he considered it desirable that there should be some stability in the remaining Nizam Shahi kingdom. In his turn, Ambar also found it useful to cultivate the friendship of the Khan-i-Khanan since it enabled him to deal with his internal rivals. However, after the death of Akbar, when the position of the Mughals in the Deccan became weak due to differences among the Mughal commanders, Ambar unleashed a fierce campaign to expel the Mughals from Berar, Balaghat and Ahmadnagar. In this enterprise he was helped by Ibrahim Adil Shah, the ruler of Bijapur, who considered it necessary that the Nizam Shahi state should continue as a buffer between Bijapur and the Mughals. He gave Ambar the powerful fort of Qandahar in Telangana for the residence of his family and for storing treasures, provisions, etc. He also sent him 10,000 horsemen for whose support a definite tract of territory was to be set apart. The treaty was cemented by a marriage alliance between the daughter of one of the leading Ethiopian nobles of Bijapur with Malik Ambar.
The marriage was celebrated in 1609 with great rejoicing. Adil Shah giving a handsome dowry to the bride and spent about Rs. 80,000 on fireworks alone. Fortified with the support of Bijapur and with the active aid of the Marathas, Ambar soon forced Khan-i-Khana to retreat to Burhanpur. Thus, by 1610, all the gains made in the Deccan made by Akbar were lost. Although Jahangir sent prince Parvez to the deccan with a large army, he could not meet the challenge posed by Malik Ambar. Even Ahmadnagar was lost and Parvez had to conclude a disgraceful peace with Ambar.
The affairs of Malik Ambar continued to prosper and the Mughal were not able to re-assert themselves as long as he had the solid support of the Marathas and other elements in the Deccan. But in course of time, Malik Ambar became arrogant and alienated his allies. The Khan-i-Khanan, who had again been posted as the Mughals viceroy of the Deccan took advantage of the situation and won over to his side a number of Habshis and Maratha nobles such as Jagdev Rai, Babaji Kate, Uldaji Ram, etc. Jahangir himself was well aware of the value of the Marathas, for he observed in his memoirs that the Marathas "are a hardy lot and are the centre of resistance in that country."
With the help of the Maratha Sardars, the Khan-i-Khanan inflicated a crushing a defeat on the combined foces of Ahmadnagar, Bijapur and Golconda in 1616. The Mughals occupied the new Nizam Shahi capital Khirki, and burnt all its buildings before they left. This defeat shook the Deccani alliance against the Mughals. However, Ambar did not relax his efforts. To complete the Khan-i-Khanan's victory, Jahangir sent a grand army under his son, prince Khurram (later Shah Jahan) and himself, moved to Mandu to support the prince (1618). Faced with his threat, Ambar had no option but to submit. It is significant, however that in the treaty Jahangir did not try to enlarge the conquest made by Akbar in the Deccan. This was not due to any military weakess on the part of Jahangir as has been sometimes imagined, but due to deliberate policy. Apparently Jahangir did not want to extended Mughal commitments in the Deccan, or become too deeply embroiled in its affairs. Moreover, he was still hopeful that is moderation would enable the deccani states to settle down and live in peace with the Mughals . As a part of his policy Jahangir tried to win over Sijapur to his side, and sent a gracious farman to Adil Shah calling him 'son'.
Despite these reverses, Malik Ambar continued to lead the Deccani resistance against the Mughals and there was no peace in the Deccan. However two year later, the combined Deccani forces again suffered a severe defeat at the hands of the Mughals. Ambar had to restore all the Mughals territories, and another 14 kos of adjoining territory. The Deccani states had to pay an indemnity of Rs. 50,00,000. The credit for these victories was given to prince Khurram.
This second defeat, coming so soon after the first, finally shattered the united front of the Deccani states against the Mughals. The old rivalries among the Deccani states now came to the surface. Ambar conducted a series of campaigns against Bijapur for the recovery of Sholapur which was a bone of contention bewee the two states. By a rapid movement Ambar reached Nauraspur built by Ibrahim Adil Shah, and forced him to flee for shelter to the fort. This fight is regarded the climax of Ambar's power.
Ambar showed remarked military skill, energy and determination in his unwillingness to come to terms with the Mughals. The chief significance of the rise of Ambar, however, is that it represented a clear recognition of the importance of the Marathas in Deccani affairs. The success of the Marathas under the leadership of Malik Ambar gave them confidence which enabled them to play an independent role later on.
Malik Ambar tried to improve the administration of the Nizam Shahi states by introducting Todar Mal's system of land revenue. He abolished the old system of giving land on contract (ijara) which was ruinous for the peasants, and adopted the zabti system.
After 1622, when the Deccan was in turmoil due to the rebellions of prince Khurram against Jahangir, Malik Ambar was able to recover once again many of the old territories which had been ceded to the Mughals. Jahangir's attempt at consolidating the Mughal position in the Deccan was, thus, frustrated. However, the long-range benefits to Ahmandnagar for reopening the dispute with te Mughal may be considered doubtful. It led to the situation in which Shah Jahan decided that he had no alternative but to extinguish Ahmadnagar as an independent state. Malik Ambar breathed his last in 1626 at the ripe age of 80 but the bitter fruits of his legacy had to be reaped by his successors.
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