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The Vijaynagar empire - Part 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The Vijaynagar and Bahmani kingdoms dominated India, south of the Vindhyas, for more than 200 years. They not only built magnificent capitals and cities, and beautified them with many splendid buildings and promoted arts and letters, but also provided for law and order and the development of commerce and handicrafts. Thus, while the forces of disintegration gradually triumphed in north India, south India and the Deccan had a long spell of stable governments. This ended with the disintegration of the Bahmani Empire towards the end of the fifteenth century, and of the Vijaynagar Empire more than fifty years later after its defeat in 1565 in the battle of Bannihatti. Meanwhile, the Indian scene was transformed, first with the arrival of the Portuguese in western India and their attempt to dominate the Indian seas, and second with the advent of the Mughals in north India. The coming of the Mughals paved the way for another spell of integration in north India and started a long era of confrontation between the land-based Asian powers and the European powers which dominated the seas.
2.0 The Vijaynagar Empire - Its Foundation and Conflict with the Bahmani Kingdom
2.1 Establishment of the Vijaynagar kingdom
The Vijaynagar kingdom was founded by Harihara and Bukka who belonged to a family of five brothers. According to a legend, they had been the feudatories of the Kakatiyas of Warangal and later became ministers in the kingdom of Kampili in modern Karnataka. When Kampili was overrun by Muhammad Tughlaq for giving refuge to a Muslim rebel the two brothers were imprisoned, converted to Islam, and were appointed to deal with the rebellions there. The Muslim governor of Madurai had already declared himself independent, and the Hoysala ruler of Mysore and the ruler of Warangal were also trying to assert their independence. After a short time Harihara and Bukka forsook their new master and their new faith. At the instance of their guru Saint Madhav Vidyaranya, they were re-admitted to Hinduism and established their capital at Vijayanagar. The date of Harihara's coronation is placed at 1336.
At first, the young kingdom had to contend both with the Hoysala ruler of Mysore and the sultan of Madurai. The sultan of Madurai was ambitious, and in battle he defeated the Hoysala ruler and executed him in a barbarous manner. The dissolution of the Hoysala kingdom enabled Harihara and Bukka to expand their tiny principality. By 1346, the whole of the Hoysala kingdom had passed into the hands of the Vijaynagar rulers. In this struggle, Harihara and Bukka were aided by their brothers who, with their relatives, took up the administration of the areas conquered by their efforts.
The Vijaynagar kingdom was, thus, a kind of cooperative commonwealth at first. Bukka succeeded his brother on the throne of Vijaynagar in 1356, and ruled till 1377.
The rising power of the Vijaynagar Empire brought it into clash with many powers both in the south and to the north. In the south, its main rivals were the sultans of Madurai, The struggle between Vijaynagar and the sultans of Madurai lasted for about four decades. By 1377 , the Sultanate of Madurai had been wiped out. The Vijaynagar Empire then comprised the whole of south India up to Rameshwaram, including the Tamil country as well as that of the Cheras (Kerala). To the north, however, Vijaynagar faced a powerful enemy in the shape of the Bahmani kingdom.
2.2 The Bahmani kingdom
The Bahmani kingdom had come into existence in 1347. Its founder was Alauddin Hasan, an Afghan adventurer. He had risen in the service of a brahmana, named Gangu, and is, therefore known as Hasan Gangu. After his coronation; he assumed the title of Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah. He is said to have traced his descent from a half mythical hero of Iran, Bahman Shah. But according to a popular legend mentioned by Ferishta, the word Bahman Shah was meant to be a tribute to his brahmana patron. In any case, it is from this title that the kingdom was called Bahmani kingdom.
2.3 The Vijaynagar-Bahmani conflict
The interests of the Vijaynagar rulers and the Bahmani sultans clashed in separate and distinct areas: in the Tungabhadra doab, in the Krishna-Godavari delta, and in the Marathwada country.
The Tungabhadra doab was the region between the rivers Krishna and Tungabhadra. On account of its wealth and economic resources, it had been the bone of contention between the western Chalukyas and the Cholas in the earlier period, and between the Yadavas and the Hoysalas later on.
The struggle for the mastery of the Krishna-Godavari basin which was very fertile and which with its numerous ports controlled the foreign trade of the region was often linked up with the struggle for the Tungabhadra doab.
In the Maratha country, the main contention was for the control of the Konkan and the area which gave access to it. The Konkan was narrow strip of land between the western Ghats which was an important outlet for the products of the region, as well as for the import of horses from Iran and Iraq. Import of good quality horses from Goa was, thus, of great importance to the southern states.
Military conflict between the Vijayanagar and the Bahamani kingdom were almost a regular feature and lasted as long as these kingdoms continued. These military conflicts resulted in widespread devastation of the contested area and the neighbourinng territories and a considerable loss of life and property.
Both sides sacked and burnt towns and villages, imprisoned and sold into slavery men, women and children and committed various other barbarities. Thus in 1367 when Bukka I assaulted the fortress of Mudkal in the disputed Tungabhadra doab, he slaughtered the entire garrison, except one man.
When this news reached the Bahmani sultan, he was enraged and on the march vowed that he would not sheath his sword till he had slaughtered one hundred thousand Hindus in revenge. In spite of the rainy season and the opposition of the Vijaynagar forces, he crossed the Tungabhadra, the first time a Bahmani sultan had in person entered the Vijayanagar kingdom. The Vijaynagar king was defeated in the battle and retreated into the jungle. We hear, for the first time of the use of artillery by both sides during this battle.
The victory of Bahmani sultan was due to his superior artillery, but the Bahmani sultan could neither capture the Raja nor his capital. In the meanwhile, wholesale slaughter of men, women and children went on. Finally, both the sides were exhausted, and decided to conclude a treaty. This treaty restored the old position whereby the doab was shared between the two. Even more important, it was agreed that since the two kingdoms would remain neighbours for a long time, it was advisable to avoid cruelty in war. It was, therefore, stipulated that in future wars, helpless and unarmed inhabitants should not be slaughtered. Although this accord was violated sometimes, it helped to make warfare in south India more humane.
2.4 Eastern expansion of the Vijaynagar empire
Having strengthened its position in south India by eliminating the Sultanate of Madurai, the Vijaynagar Empire embarked upon a policy of expansion towards the eastern sea coast under Harihara II (1377-1406). There were a series of Hindu principalities in the region, the most notable being the Reddis on the upper reaches of the delta and the rulers of Warangal in the lower reaches of the Krishna-Godavari delta. The rulers of Orissa to the north, as well as the Bahmani sultans to the east, were also interested in this area. Although the ruler of Warangal had helped Hasan Gangu in his struggle against Delhi, his successor had invaded Warangal and seized the stronghold of Kaulas and the hill, fort of Golconda. Vijayanagar had been too busy in the south to intervene.
The Bahmani sultan fixed Golconda as the boundary of his kingdom and promised that neither he nor his successors would encroach against Warangal any further. To seal this agreement, the ruler of Warangal had presented to the Bahmani sultan a throne set with valuable jewels. It is said that it had been originally prepared as a present to Muhammad Tughlaq. The alliance of the Bahmani kingdom and Warangal lasted for over 50 years and was a major factor in the inability of Vijaynagar to overrun the Tungabhadra doab, or to stem the Bahmani offensive in the area.
However, inspite of all these battles between Vijaynagar and the Bahmanis, the position of the two sides remained more or less the same with the fortune of war swinging sometimes to one side, and sometimes to the other. Harihara II was able to maintain his position in the face of the Bahmani-Warangal combine. His greatest success was in wresting Belgaum and Goa in the west from the Bahmani kingdom. He also sent an expedition to north Sri Lanka.
3.0 The Deva Rayas
After a period of confusion, Harihara II was succeeded by Deva Raya I (1406-1422). Early in his reign, there was a renewed fight for the Tungabhadra doab. He was defeated by the Bahmani ruler Firuz Shah and he had to pay ten lakhs of huns and pearls and elephants as an indemnity. He also agreed to marry his daughter to the sultan, ceding to him in dowry Bankapur in the doab in order to obviate all future dispute. The marriage was celebrated with great pomp and show.
When Firuz Shah Bahmani arrived near Vijaynagar for the marriage, Deva Raya came out of the city and met him with great pomp. From the gate of the city to the palace, which was a distance of ten km, the road was spread with cloths of gold, velvet, satin and other rich stuffs. The two monarchs rode on horseback together from the centre of the city square. The relations of Deva Raya joined the cavalcade, marching on foot before the two kings. The festivities lasted three days.
This was not the first political marriage of its type in south India. Earlier, the ruler of Kherla in Gondwana had married his daughter to Firuz Shah Bahmani in order to effect peace. It is said that this princess was the favourite queen of Firuz. However, these marriages could not by themselves bring about peace. The question of the Krishna-Godavari basin led to a renewed conflict between Vijaynagar, the Bahmani kingdom and Orissa. Following a confusion in the Reddi kingdom, Deva Raya entered into an alliance with Warangal for partitioning the kingdom between them. Warangal's defection from the side of the Bahmani kingdom changed the balance of power in the Deccan. Deva Raya was able to inflict a shattering defeat on Firuz Shah Bahmani and annexed the entire territory up to the mouth of the Krishna river.
Deva Raya did not neglect the arts of peace. He constructed a dam across the Tungabhadra so that he could bring the canals into the city to relieve the shortage of water. It irrigated the neighbouring fields also. He also built a dam on the river Haridra for irrigation purposes.
After some confusion, Deva Raya II (1422-1446), who is considered the greatest ruler of the dynasty, ascended the throne at Vijaynagar. In order to strengthen his army, he inducted more Muslims in his army. According to Ferishta, Deva Raya II felt that the superiority of the Bahmani army was due to their sturdier horses and their large body of good archers. He, therefore, enlisted 2000 Muslims, gave them jagirs and recommended all his Hindu soldiers and officers to learn the art of archery from them.
The employment of Muslims in the Vijaynagar army was not new, for Deva Raya I is said to have kept 10,000 Muslims in his army. Ferishta tells us that Deva Raya II assembled 60,000 Hindus well skilled in archery, besides 80,000 cavalry, and 2,00,000 infantry. These figures may be exaggerated. However, the collection of a large cavalry force must have put a strain on the resources of the state since most of the good mounts had to be imported, and the Arabs, who controlled the trade, charged high prices for them.
With his new army, Deva Raya II crossed the Tungabhadra river in 1443 and tried to recover Mudkal, Bankapur, etc., which were south of the Krishna river and had been lost to the Bahmani sultans earlier. Three hard battles were fought, but in the end the two sides had to agree to the existing frontiers.
4.0 TRAVELLERS' ACCOUNTS
Nuniz, a Portuguese writer of the sixteenth century, tells us that the kings of Quilon, Sri Lanka, Pulicat, Pegu and Tenasserim (in Burma and Malaya) paid tribute to Deva Raya II. It is doubtful whether the Vijaynagar rulers were powerful enough on the sea to extract regular tribute from Pegu and Tenasserim. Perhaps, what was meant was that the rulers of these countries were in contact with Vijaynagar, and had sent presents to secure its goodwill. Sri Lanka, however, had been invaded a number of times. This could not have been attained without a strong navy.
Under a series of capable rulers, Vijaynagar emerged as the most powerful and wealthy state in the south during the first half of the fifteenth century. The Italian traveller Nicolo Conti who visited Vijaynagar in 1420 had left us a graphic account of it. He says: "The circumference of the city is sixty miles, its walls carried up to the mountains, and enclose the valleys at their foot.... In this city there are estimated to be ninety thousand men fit to bear arms. Their king is more powerful than all the other kings in India." Ferishta also says: "The princes of the house of Bahmani maintained their superiority by valour only; for in power, wealth and the extent of the country, the rajas of Beejanagar (Vijaynagar) greatly exceeded them."
The Persian traveller Abdur Razzaq, who had travelled widely in and outside India, visited Vijaynagar in the reign of Deva Raya II. He gives a glowing account of the country, saying: "This latter prince has in his dominions three hundred ports, each of which is equal to Calicut, and on terra firma his territories comprise a space of three months journey." All travellers agree that the country was thickly populated with numerous towns and villages. Abdur Razzaq says: "The country is for the most part well cultivated, very fertile. The troops amount in number to eleven lakhs."
Abdur Razzaq considers Vijaynagar as one of the most splendid cities anywhere in the world which he had seen or heard of. Describing the city, he says: "It is built in such a manner that seven citadels and the same number of walls enclose each other. The seventh fortress, which is placed in the centre of the others, occupies an area ten times larger than the market place of the city of Herat. Starting from the palace, there were four bazars "which were extremely long and broad." As was the Indian custom, people belonging to one caste or profession lived in one quarter of the town.
The Muslims appear to have lived in separate quarters provided for them. In the bazars as well as in the king's palace, "one sees numerous running streams and canals formed of chiselled stone, polished and smooth." Another later traveller says that it was larger than Rome, one of the biggest towns in the western world at that time.
The kings of Vijaynagar were reputed to be very wealthy. Abdur Razzaq mentions the tradition that "in the king's palace are several cell-like basins filled with bullion, forming one mass." The hoarding of wealth by a ruler was an ancient tradition. However, such hoarded wealth remained out of circulation, and sometimes invited foreign attack.
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