UPSC IAS exam preparation - Technology and environmental issues in India - Lecture 8

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Science and technology in agriculture

[हिंदी में पढ़ें ]

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1.0 Introduction

Service sector today plays a dominant role in the GDP of the Indian economy. But the structural changes in terms of employment have been slow, as agriculture, though contributing only 14.4% to the GVA of the economy (2018-19) is still the mainstay of more than 50 per cent of the total workforce. Though agriculture is still the predominant sector of the economy in terms of employment and livelihood, it is losing its dynamism. The country has been striving to achieve target of 4 per cent growth in agriculture since the 8th Five Year Plan so essential for achieving the objective of "inclusive growth". The 12th Plan has already commenced, yet agricultural growth in India is nowhere near this goal. 

As the world's food system becomes increasingly stressed by the growing demand for greater quantities and varieties of food, the role of science and technology is becoming more important. Scientific advancements can hold the key to higher yields, greater resilience and more efficient land use. Such advances will be critical in feeding the world's population but key questions are raised in relation to how scientific advances can be best implemented.

The revolutions in agriculture, health and education witnessed during the last century were mostly the products of public good research supported by governments and philanthropic institutions. The contemporary world is, however, witnessing a shift from public good research to commercially profitable research supported by the private sector and protected by intellectual property rights (IPR). Even drugs which are important for the control of HIV/AIDS are available only at a cost which the poor cannot afford. This is why there was an agreement in the Doha Round of the WTO negotiations that in the case of drugs of importance for controlling diseases like HIV/AIDS, there must be a provision for the compulsory licensing of rights. It is now widely accepted that gross social and gender inequity will be threats to peace and human security. It is hence appropriate that Mr. Kofi Annan, the then Secretary General of the United Nations, made the following observations in a guest editorial in Science (Vol.299, 7 March 2003):

"The unbalanced distribution of scientific activity generates serious problems not only for the scientific community in the developing countries, but for development itself. It accelerates the disparity between advanced and developing countries, creating social and economic difficulties at both national and international levels. The idea of two worlds of science is anathema to the scientific spirit. It will require the commitment of scientists and scientific institutions throughout the world to change that portrait to bring the benefits of science to all".

The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) Founded in 1929, the ICAR is an apex organization for conducting and co-ordinating agricultural research and has been at the forefront to lead these agricultural revolutions in the country, making  India not only self-sufficient in food but also with surplus. As a forward looking organization, fully realizing the emerging complex challenges, ICAR has set a vision to attain 'Rainbow Revolution' covering the entire spectrum of activities in agriculture which will make India a developed nation free of poverty, hunger, malnutrition, and environmental environmental safety. Towards this goal, it is operating two prestigious and mega projects, viz. National Agricultural Technology Project with emphasis on production system research, organization and management reforms and innovations in technology dissemination and Agricultural Human Resource Development Project with emphasis on improving the quality of agricultural education.

Presently the Union Minister of Agriculture is the President of the ICAR Society.

2.0 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF PUBLIC GOOD RESEARCH

The UNDP HDR for the year 2001 introduced an index for measuring technology achievement. India ranks very low in this index, in spite of its substantial advances in science and technology. The indicators used by UNDP for measuring technology achievement are largely those covered by intellectual property rights and private sector leadership.

Unfortunately, the Technology Achievement Index (TAI) of UNDP fails to take into account the contributions of public good research in improving human well-being in basic areas like food, water, health and energy security

The significance of public good research will be clear from the following data:

1. Foodgrain production increased from about 45 million tonnes in 1951-52 to over 200 million tonnes at the beginning of this century.
2. Productivity of major cereals increased from 700 kg per hectare in 1961-62 to over 1700 kg per hectare by 2001-02.
3. The net area under irrigation increased from about 21 million hectares in 1951-52 to about 60 million hectares by the late 1990s; gross irrigated area has also increased by over 300 %. Groundwater irrigation has played the lead role in bringing more area under irrigation, thanks to technological advances.
4. Annual milk production has gone up from about 20 million tonnes in 1950-51 to nearly 100 million tonnes in 2007, thereby taking India to the first position in the world in milk production.
5. Both marine and inland fisheries have registered impressive progress: a major contribution to this progress has been made by scientific advances in the production of seed, feed, and induced breeding as well as crafts and gear.
6. Science and technology coupled with social engineering have helped to promote conservation, restoration and commercial forestry and the regeneration of coastal mangrove wetlands.
7. Significant progress has been made in the development of affordable drugs for the control of malaria, tuberculosis, leprosy, cholera and other diseases; small pox has been eradicated and leprosy is likely to be eradicated soon.
8. Many nutritional disorders like those arising from micronutrient deficiencies have now affordable remedies through a food-cum-fortification approach.
9. Rural drinking water supply has been made nearly universal through the design of simple water pumps and the application of remote sensing and hard rock drilling techniques.
10. Rural energy systems have gained enormously from scientific work related to the harnessing of biogas, biomass, solar and wind and other forms of renewable energy.

Thus, the list of meaningful achievements brought about by public good research is large and impressive. The impact of such research is not generally captured when indicators based upon technologies covered by IPR are used. The task of developing technology achievement indicators based on public good research is not easy, because of the fact that for technology to strike roots and bear fruit, appropriate technology delivery systems and public policies and investment are needed. Also, the benefits cannot be measured only in metric or monetary terms. Non-monetary benefits like a general improvement in the quality of human life are equally important.

The big question being asked now is can the technologies on the shelf now assist in improving the productivity, profitability, stability and sustainability of the farming systems prevalent in the agrarian hotspot districts? Can they help farm families with small holdings in unirrigated areas to improve their income from every drop of water and through crop-livestock-fish integrated farming systems? 

Crop husbandry, animal husbandry, fisheries, forestry, irrigation, health, drinking water and energy have been the major areas of concern where technology has not been used adequately.

3.0 BENEFITS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN AGRICULTURAL SECTORS

All the sectors of agriculture have benefited from a large number of technological interventions. A few significant technological interventions have helped in bringing about rapid transformation in a sector. 

3.1 Crop husbandry

Adoption of modern technology in crop cultivation is a very important feature of agricultural development in independent India. The varietal improvement programme, focusing on development of superior crop varieties through plant breeding, has been a vital component of modern agricultural technology.

The ICAR system, with its elaborate network of research activities, has developed and released more than 3300 high yielding varieties and hybrids pertaining to various crops. Plant breeding techniques have been used to develop varieties and hybrids of crops with desirable characteristics such as high yield and improved quality as well as resistance to biotic (pests and diseases) and abiotic (salinity, drought etc.) stresses. Quality parameters taken into account during the varietal improvement programme vary across crops. For instance, the programme aims at improving the grain size, colour, milling and baking qualities in wheat, the cooking quality in rice, and the protein content in pulses. Breeding for different maturing varieties and the development of photo insensitivity (which permits the cultivation of crops in non-traditional areas) is also an area of interest.

The development of varieties necessitated the development of the agricultural input sector too. Several changes have been triggered in cultivation practices, including use of fertilisers, land preparation, crop protection, use of agricultural machinery, processing, etc. Significant improvement in labour productivity has also occurred.

Area under cultivation as well as area irrigated has increased. A significant achievement in adopting high yielding varieties has been the quantum jump in yield of crops, leading to a corresponding increase in agricultural output in the country.

As far as rice is concerned, major achievements have been in developing varieties with shorter maturation, with resistance to pests and diseases and improvement in grain quality. In wheat, the significant impact of plant breeding efforts has been evidenced by a steady increase of yield levels as well as in release of late sown varieties. Improving the protein content in maize, the sucrose content in sugarcane, and the oil content in soybean have been important achievements. In sorghum, apart from concentrating on grain sorghum, the programme has concentrated on developing varieties exclusively for green fodder. The contribution of the varietal improvement programme in the case of sunflower has been with regard to development of cultivars with short duration and possibility of cultivation across the year. Varieties suitable for processing, as in the case of potato, have also been an important focus. Extensive work has been done on pest and disease resistance in cotton hybrids.

Appropriate indicators such as yield, production and value of output have been chosen to measure the impact or achievements triggered by the varietal improvement programmes in the sphere of crop husbandry. Further, an index of technology achievement has been computed using the value of output per hectare as the indicator for the period 1950-51 to 2000-01.

The technology achievement index for the crop husbandry sector as a whole has more than doubled over the five decades; the index has increased for the individual crops too, with the extent varying across crops. However, while most of the crops registered rapid improvement in yield levels in the 1980s, the rate of growth of yield declined in the next decade. It is evident that there has been no breakthrough in technology in the 1990s even to sustain the growth levels achieved during the earlier decade. It is therefore very important that the government considerably enhances its efforts in agricultural research.

3.2 Irrigation

Expansion of irrigation in the country is in part related to a conscious policy decision of the government to invest in irrigation works and in part to development of technologies, such as drilling technology, leading to investment by individual farmers. Over the six decades and more since Independence, net irrigated area has more than doubled and this expansion underlies the significant improvement in agricultural productivity and production in the country.

Several technologies, major and minor, have played a crucial role in the development of irrigation in the country with regard to harnessing, distributing and managing water resources as well as in conserving and quantifying available water. The design and construction of dams in India have undergone several modifications based on new scientific inputs and experience over the years. Technology has enabled construction of large dams even in areas susceptible to seismic activity, which is a major breakthrough, particularly with regard to the flood prone north-eastern States. As regards sub-surface irrigation, high speed drilling technology has replaced traditional shallow dug wells by modern deep borewells in hard rock areas. The spread of tubewell technology has brought large tracts of the plains, particularly the Indo-Gangetic plains, under irrigation. Pumping technology has undergone major strides from low cost zero energy pedal pumps in shallow aquifers to high power pumps to reach deep aquifers in the hard rock areas. The use of several computer simulation models, remote sensing and GIS tools along with advanced imaging techniques have replaced the traditional methods of water resource quantification and management. In the areas of water conservation, the list of technologies is quite long, ranging from improvements in water conveyance to water application and on-farm conservation methods. Lining of canals using several scientific methods has resulted in significant reduction in water loss in many canal systems in the country. Rainwater harvesting, groundwater recharge and micro-irrigation technology have tremendous potential for water conservation in addition to other benefits.

While government policies have focused on spreading canal, tubewell and borewell technology, they have sidelined traditional irrigation systems such as tanks and dug wells which have been performing equally well in terms of extent of areas irrigated in the 1950s. Particularly, tank irrigation has declined from 16 % to about 4 % of net irrigated area over the five decades since 1951-52. Tanks are vital sources of irrigation in the hard rock areas with uneven distribution of rainfall and poor recharge characteristics. Groundwater in these areas has reached dangerously low levels and is unsustainable in the long run. 

Revival of these traditional irrigation structures and use of technology to enhance their performance are important strategies to be considered in the future.

3.3 Animal husbandry

Besides complementing and supplementing agriculture, animal husbandry provides security to farmers, especially when agriculture fails. Livestock are essential to millions of poor households across the country not only as a source of income but also as a major source of protein, supplementary nutrition, draught power, fertiliser, fuel and a store of wealth. In the post-Independence period, the Indian livestock sector has undergone a major shift, mainly due to the introduction of new technologies.

Various technological interventions in the post-Independence period in the livestock sector of the country have made significant improvements in the production, productivity and per capita availability of livestock products. To improve milk production in the country, which was perceptibly low in 1960, multi-pronged approaches in breeding, health cover, feeding and marketing were initiated by the government through various development programmes. Cross-breeding and upgradation were done to improve the productivity of indigenous cows and local buffaloes, respectively. Artificial insemination with improved germplasm by using frozen semen has been the most strategic intervention in increasing milk production. Vaccines against various diseases were developed and cattle in every part of the country were vaccinated, which resulted in reduced animal losses as indicated by the disease incidence particulars. Various feeding technologies were developed to exploit the full potential of cattle along with the creation of marketing facilities for rural milk. These combined measures resulted in improvement in milk production to 91 million tonnes in 2004, with India standing first in the world in milk production. The growth in the dairy sector was significant, as indicated by the two-fold increase in the value of output per milch animal.

Introduction of high-yielding varieties of eggers - Rhode Island Red, White LegHorn, Babcock, etc. - during the 1970s and broilers - Cobb, Ross, etc. - in the 1980s has been a benchmark in the development of the poultry sector in India. Along with this, the development of newer vaccines and diagnostic kits, least cost formulation of feeds, and adoption of newer management techniques in rearing have contributed to improving productivity and production. The average productivity of birds in terms of weight of eggs increased more than twice between 1961 and 2001.

3.4 Fisheries

Fisheries deal with farming of aquatic organisms (aquaculture) as well as their collection from open water (capture fisheries). Aquaculture as well as capture fisheries can be undertaken in freshwater as well as marine environments. Over the years, the fish production system has been subjected to several technological interventions pertaining to production, processing, product formulation, packaging and storage. Intensification of fish culture with bio technological tools, diagnosis and control of diseases that affect fish, improvement in fish nutrition from feed formulation to encapsulation, and assessment of water quality are some of the technological interventions pertaining to aquaculture that have been developed over the years in India. As far as capture fisheries are concerned, major technological intervention has been with regard to development of different kinds of fishing craft and gear.

Being basically a small-scale enterprise, freshwater aquaculture provides for the domestic food security of rural India. The Central Institute of Freshwater Aquaculture (CIFA) has virtually revolutionised freshwater aquaculture in the country by standardising three technologies: 

1. Induced breeding of carp through administration of pituitary gland extract
2. Carp nursery rearing and pond management practices   and 
3. Composite carp culture, where the different layers of the pond ecosystem are effectively utilised.

Carp production has contributed a major share to inland fish production, increasing from 34 % in 1986 to 65 % in 2000. To promote carp production with adequate seed availability, hatchery production of seeds by induced breeding was also developed.

One of the most important and effective national programmes for the promotion of rural aquaculture development has been the Fish Farmers Development Agencies (FFDAs), started in 1973-74. FFDAs provided a package of technical, financial and extension support services to fish farmers. They arranged suitable water areas on long-term lease, identified beneficiaries, and provided incentives in the form of subsidies/grants for the construction/rehabilitation of ponds and for input supplies.

During the five decades after Independence, the Indian marine fisheries sector has transformed from a traditional, subsistence avocation into a market-driven multicrore industrial sector. Marine fish production has increased through successive stages, first with a change from natural to synthetic fibres in gear fabrication, introduction of mechanised craft, introduction of trawl nets and, mainly, motorisation of fishing craft. The Bay of Bengal Programme (BOBP), financed by the Swedish International Development Agency from 1977 to 1989, has brought about significant changes in the life of the artisanal fishermen through several strategic interventions, including the initiation of post-harvest technologies like hygienic curing and smoking of fish, introduction of insulated fish boxes for transportation from landing centres to markets, and the enhanced role of fisherwomen in coastal fishery development.

These developments have paved the way for what is hailed as the Blue Revolution or Aquaplosion in India. The Blue Revolution had resulted in an increase in per capita availability of fish in the country, from 3.82 kg/annum in 1986 to 5.55 kg/annum in 2000. The years from 2010 onwards saw a jump in shrimp farming and exports.

3.5 Forestry

Improvement in the area under forests in India is largely due to interventions in the aspects of conservation and management of the fast dwindling natural forest, protection of endangered flora and fauna, wildlife management and development of high yielding plantations. The impact of science and technology on the forestry sector has been evidenced on constituents such as conservation forestry, restoration forestry, production forestry, wildlife management, protection forestry, and research and utilisation forestry.

However, the peculiarity and complexity of forestry as compared to the other sectors makes it difficult to understand and evaluate the impact of technology in forestry. Independent India has been committed to conserving her forest resources, and suitable policies have been evolved and adopted with regard to the protection of forests. The Forest Research Institute (FRI) in Dehra Dun extends its functions over all of India, with branches dealing with silviculture, forest management, forest zoology, forest botany, forest chemistry and forest economy. The focus has been on the recognition of the role of forests in ecological balance, environmental stability, biodiversity conservation, food security and sustainable development.

The impact of satellite technology in forest management has resulted in the appreciation of the status of  forest, its deforestation and its condition. The Forest Survey of India's biennial assessment of forest cover has helped in understanding the complexity and challenges facing the country. This challenge has been responsible for the development of an Indian instrument of forest management, namely, the criteria and indicators set out by the Bhopal-India process. In conservation forestry, data and information generated by the Rapid Biodiversity Assessment has helped in formulating strategies both for in situ and ex situ conservation. In restoration forestry, significant work in rehabilitation of mangroves is being done all along the Coromandel Coast due to the technology developed and diffused by the M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation.

In restoration of forests to original status, Joint Forest Management technology is playing a perceptible role all over the country by enlisting the active participation of people motivated by village forest committees. In production forestry, the large-scale plantation programme as well as clonal forestry and agro forestry have an outstanding record of application diffusion and achievement both in the public and private sectors. In wildlife management, the Wildlife Institute of India has developed relevant grassroot level technology in wildlife management, significant among them being methods to conduct census, radio collaring, use of GPS in conjunction with GIS, and conservation genetics of tigers and turtles. In forest protection, the establishment of the Wildlife Forensic Cell and its role in identification by use of DNA technology, thereby securing conviction for forest offences, has been a major breakthrough.

3.6 Health

Since Independence, several national level health programmes have been initiated in our country, to tackle specific diseases. The objectives of these health programmes have been 

1. To control, that is, to bring down the prevalence or incidence rate of specific diseases to a level
2. Where they no longer remain a public health problem to eradicate the health problem and 
3. The impact of the health programmes is measured using parameters like prevalence, incidence, morbidity, mortality rates, etc. of diseases. However, data on incidence or prevalence of various diseases are not available separately for rural areas and pertain to the country as a whole. Therefore, while it has not been possible to estimate the impact of specific programmes on rural health, given that 70 % of India's population live in rural areas, the estimates for the country may be taken to reflect the rural reality.

Infant mortality rate (IMR) is considered a sensitive indicator of the socio-economic conditions of a population. IMR is influenced by medical as well as non-medical factors. The level and quality of medical care available for deliveries as well as for ante-natal care, the reach of the immunisation programme, the nature of nutritional interventions made available for pregnant women, availability of safe drinking water and sanitation, all these factors particularly influence IMR. The universal immunisation programme is perhaps the most important medical intervention in bringing about a decline in IMR in rural India, which has shown a sharp fall from 138 per 1000 live births in 1971 to 69 in 2002. Life expectancy at birth is influenced to a very large extent by decline in mortality rate in general and infant mortality rate in particular, decline in incidence of diseases and improvement in sanitary conditions. 

Therefore, the improvement in life expectancy of an average villager in India may be taken as a summary measure of achievements in the overall health status of the population. Life expectancy at birth of the average rural Indian in 1970-75 was 48 years and it rose to 61.2 years by 1998-2002. While the improvement in health in the post-Independence period in India cannot be denied, it is important to note that the achievements are far from adequate.

4.0 GENETICALLY MODIFIED CROPS (GM CROPS)

A GM or transgenic crop is a plant with a new combination of genetic material through the use of modern biotechnology. It may contain a gene(s) artificially inserted instead of the plant acquiring it through pollination. This "change of genes" can be done either by traditional selection and breeding (just like for animals) or by modern laboratory modification at genetic level.

4.1 Green Revolutions

Science-based improvements in agricultural technology that have contributed across two Green Revolutions (GR) in reducing hunger and poverty in India and most of Asia. 

1. The first GR started in the 1960s converting India from being a basketcase to a bread basket.
2. The science of GR1.0 basically built high-yielding semi-dwarf rice and wheat plant architecture adapted to low-stress environments, which mostly benefited farmers in favourable, irrigated areas. 
3. The science of the second GR (GR2.0) focusses on "leaving no farmer behind", especially poor rice farmers growing their crop in marginal environments. 
4. GR2.0 may have started in rice around 2008, when farmers began adopting one of this revolution's first new technologies, flood-tolerant rice, which can withstand total submergence for more than two weeks. 
5. Since then, these Sub1 varieties have spread like wildfire in eastern India and in other regions where flooding is a perennial problem.
6. The gene was discovered and deployed by IRRI and then Indian scientists - it enables rice plants to survive complete submergence - gene is named Sub1.

[ IIRRI - The International Rice Research Institute is an international agricultural research and training organization with headquarters in Los Baños, Laguna in the Philippines. ]

4.2 GMO crops: A third Green Revolution

1. Sometime around 2030, a third GR (GR3.0) may commence when Indian farmers start planting yield-plateau-busting C4 rice and nitrogen-fixing rice.  
2. These varieties will be environmentally friendly as to produce higher yield, they will only need half the amount of water and nitrogen currently used. 
3. By this time, consumers should have been benefiting for years from better quality and more nutritious rice, fortified with iron, zinc, and pro-vitamin A, in the marketplace. 

4.3 Anti GMO movements 

1. India is witnessing anti-GMO (genetically modified organism) movements that may hinder the use of transgenic crops like 'BT brinjal' (eggplant) and pro-vitamin A-fortified Golden Rice (GR).
2. The future of rice science depends on nurturing the next crop of vibrant, intelligent, and caring young scientists. 
3. India is home to the world's largest population of vitamin A-deficient (VAD) people, mostly children and pregnant women, many of whom are dying or going blind without the vitamin in their diet. 
4. The Btbrinjal approval has been delayed in India as govt. has put a moratorium on it.
5. The large amount of pesticides applied to regular brinjal in India can be eliminated with the Bt version of the crop.
6. Bangladesh case - Although on hold in India, Btbrinjal has been released in Bangladesh, based on the data generated in India! India already has rigorous approval processes for genetically-engineered products, crops, food, etc. Countries in South Asia can benefit by sharing these.

4.4 Process of genetically modifying crops

First and foremost the genetic material of the two or more crops whose genetic property or properties will be mixed has to be fully mapped. The phrase "genetic mapping" means to have a full and exhaustive recorded knowledge of the genes, and the sequence of genes of the genetically mapped organism(s).

When each of the genes (and their functions) of the particular crops have been identified, they are then separated in a science lab. These genes are then cloned and injected into the sequence of genes embryonic form (sometimes to stem cells) of the recipient crop. Finally the seed of the modified crop is planted and grown in greenhouses through traditional methods.

5.0 SECOND GREEN REVOLUTION

After a successful first green revolution, India needs a second green revolution to 

1. bring food security to its people
2. to remove distress of farming community and 
3. to make its agriculture globally competitive.

To achieve these goals, yield rates of food grains, pulses, oil seeds, dairying and poultry, horticultural crops, and vegetables need to be enhanced; and forward-backward linkages of agriculture with technology, food processing industry needs to be strengthened to match soil to seed and product to market. High productivity and better value addition by agro-processing are its key parameters.

5.1 R&D is the future

India spent 31% of its agricultural GDP on research and development in 2010, in the same year China spent almost double that amount. The Economic Survey noted that even in states where agriculture is important (measured by share of agriculture in state GDP), agriculture education is especially weak if measured by the number of students enrolled in agricultural universities. There has also not been any major contribution from the private sector towards research and development. Government should thus woo private players by giving them incentives to play a major role in agricultural research and development.

5.2 Other Initiatives

1. 'More from less' should be the aim of agriculture because rapid industrialization and climate change have raised the scarcity value of land and water. 
2. Indian agriculture is the victim of the Green Revolution's success. It has become cereal-centric, regionally-biased and resource-intensive. A rainbow revolution must follow the green and white revolutions.
3. Genetically modified crop technologies have 'significant net benefits.' Evolved regulation is needed.
4. Pulses and oilseeds must be supported with procurement and support prices that reflect their social contribution - less water use and enrichment of soil with atmospheric nitrogen. 
5. Advancements in Seed Technology - New varieties need to be tested and seeds of these varieties should be made available to the farmers for cultivation in the regions in which it is suitable.
6. Regulatory measures for quality seed production have to be tightened so as to discourage the sale of spurious seeds to the farmers.
7. Subsidies on power must end to curb water wastage. Cheap power makes India a net exporter of water through commodities like cotton, sugar and soybean, while China is a net importer of water through soybean, cotton, meat and grains.
8. Agricultural research has the biggest impact on yield and profitability but it is weak in states where agriculture is relatively more important (eastern and northern states, except Punjab and Haryana).

The private sector must be enticed into pulses research (which it has shunned) by offering a 'disproportionately large enough award' to the winner for innovating in desirable traits, but the intellectual property rights must vest with the government. There should be equal treatment of the private, public and citizen sectors in this respect.

6.0 Vertical Farming

Vertical farming goes back to 1915, though it was not till 2015 that the first commercial vertical farms were built. It is the practice of growing crops in vertically stacked layers, with controlled-environments, to optimize plant growth, and soilless farming techniques such as hydroponics, aquaponics, and aeroponics. They can be built in buildings, shipping containers, underground tunnels, and abandoned mine shafts.

Hydroponics - a subset of hydroculture, a method of growing plants without soil by instead using mineral nutrient solutions in a water solvent. Terrestrial plants may be grown with only their roots exposed to the nutritious liquid, etc.

Aquaponics - it combines conventional aquaculture (raising aquatic animals in tanks) with hydroponics (cultivating plants in water) in a symbiotic environment. Water from the aquaculture system is fed to a hydroponic system where the by-products are broken down by nitrifying bacteria initially into nitrites and subsequently into nitrates that are utilized by the plants as nutrients. Then, the water is recirculated back to the aquaculture system.

Aeroponics - it is the process of growing plants in an air or mist environment without the use of soil or an aggregate medium (aer = "air" and ponos = "labour"). Unlike hydroponics, which uses a liquid nutrient solution as a growing medium and essential minerals to sustain plant growth; or aquaponics which uses water and fish waste, aeroponics is conducted without a growing medium.

6.1 Latest developments 

Now big names like SoftBank (Japan), Google's former boss Eric Schmidt and Amazon's founder Jeff Bezos have ploughed more than $200m into "Plenty", a vertical-farming company based in San Francisco, US.  Technology promises to turn vertical-farming operations into efficient "plant factories". In latest farms, the hydroponics, and the recycling that supports them, mean the only water lost from the system is that which ends up as part of one of the plants themselves. And towers mean the system is modular.

Vertical farms are more compact, so a bonus in places like cities where land is expensive. Since sales of fresh produce to the urban masses are often touted as one of vertical farming's biggest opportunities, that is important. But a greenhouse gets its light, and much of its heat, free, courtesy of the sun. And modern greenhouses can also use solar-powered supplementary LED lighting to extend their growing seasons and hydroponic systems to save water. 

A drawback of vertical farming is the high cost of the electricity required to run the large number of LEDs. This has meant that production has been commercially viable for high-value, perishable produce only, such as salad leaves and herbs. For a broader range of produce, it can prove too expensive. 

One way of saving electricity is to use LEDs that generate only the colours that plants require, instead of the full spectrum of plain white light. Plants are green because their leaves contain chlorophyll, a pigment that reflects the green light in the middle of the spectrum while absorbing and using for photosynthesis the blue and red wavelengths at either end of it. 

Light colours play an important role at various stages of a plant's development. A dose of green at an appropriate moment produces a higher yield. A timely spot of infrared can improve the quality of foliage. The lights can also produce various blue/red mixes.

Some firms have succeeded with some root vegetables, such as radishes and baby turnips. Bulk field crops, such as wheat and rice, may never make sense for a vertical farm, and larger, heavier vegetables would be tricky to raise. This means full-grown potatoes are probably off the menu for now.

Vertical farming will not feed the world, but it will help provide more fresh produce to more people. Miniature versions will be designed for people to put in their kitchens.

7.0 AGRI STARTUPS

1. Startups and technology firms are trying to break into India's agricultural landscape using newer business models. 
2. They are tapping governments, insurers, banks, farming co-operatives, development agencies and even CSR programs.
3. Most farmers have small holdings. Some even rent the land they farm on from others. Farmer distress is widespread. Farming contributes around 15% to India's gross domestic product. In short, India has few large farms that can pay for technology solutions.
4. Crop In Technologies - started in 2010, selling its agri-tech solutions directly to farmers. It now tailors solutions to specific needs. "Each customer segment that we deal with, we have a different value proposition for them," said JyotiVaddi, head of business development at Crop In Technologies. CropIn is working with the World Bank in Bihar and Madhya Pradesh on a climate resilience project. 
5. The Weather Company, an IBM unit - It provides hyperlocal weather information to farmers, along with data on soil moisture and temperature, which aids farmers in making informed decisions on how and when to irrigate. The company has tied up with agro-tech startup AgroStar to create crop disease prediction algorithms.
6. Eka Software - It has built a blockchain platform for coffee farmers in a tie-up with the Coffee Board of India. It helps farmers get a good price for their product, while offering coffee roasters and exporters data on crop quality. State governments are also looking to invest in blockchain technology to help cashew and shrimp exports. 

8.0 EMERGING AGRICULTURAL TECHNOLOGIES

Here is the list of the hottest emerging agricultural technologies

1. Soil and Water Sensors - Perhaps the equipment having the most immediate effect are soil and water sensors. These sensors are durable, unobtrusive and relatively inexpensive. Even family farms are finding it affordable to distribute them throughout their land, and they provide numerous benefits. For instance, these sensors can detect moisture and nitrogen levels, and the farm can use this information to determine when to water and fertilize rather than rely on a predetermined schedule. That results in more efficient use of resources and therefore lowered costs, but it also helps the farm be more environmentally friendly by conserving water, limiting erosion and reducing fertilizer levels in local rivers and lakes. 
2. Weather Tracking - Although we still make jokes about our local meteorologists, the truth is that computerized weather modeling is becoming increasingly sophisticated. There are online weather services that focus exclusively on agriculture, and farmers can access these services on dedicated onboard and handheld farm technology but also via mobile apps that run on just about any consumer smartphone. This technology can give farmers enough advanced notice of frost, hail and other weather that they can take precautions to protect the crops or at least mitigate losses to a significant degree. 
3. Satellite Imaging - As remote satellite imaging has become more sophisticated, it's allowed for real-time crop imagery. This isn't just bird's-eye-view snapshots but images in resolutions of 5-meter-pixels and even greater. Crop imagery lets a farmer examine crops as if he or she were standing there without actually standing there. Even reviewing images on a weekly basis can save a farm a considerable amount of time and money. Additionally, this technology can be integrated with crop, soil and water sensors so that the farmers can receive notifications along with appropriate satellite images when danger thresholds are met. 
4. Pervasive Automation - Pervasive automation is a buzz term in the agriculture technology industry, and it can refer to any technology that reduces operator workload. Examples include autonomous vehicles controlled by robotics or remotely through terminals and hyper precision, such as RTK navigation systems that make seeding and fertilization routes as optimal as possible. Most farming equipment already adopts the ISOBUS standard, and that puts on the precipice of a farming reality where balers, combines, tractors and other farming equipment communicate and even operate in a plug-and-play manner.
5. Minichromosomal Technology - Perhaps one of the most exciting advents in agriculture technology is coming in a very tiny package. A minichromosome is a small structure within a cell that includes very little genetic material but can, in layman's terms, hold a lot of information. Using minichromosomes, agricultural geneticists can add dozens and perhaps even hundreds of traits to a plant. These traits can be quite complex, such as drought tolerance and nitrogen use. However, what is most intriguing about minichromosomal technology is that a plant's original chromosomes are not altered in any way. That results in faster regulatory approval and wider, faster acceptance from consumers.
6. RFID Technology - The soil and water sensors mentioned earlier have set a foundation for traceability. The industry has only begun to realize this infrastructure, but it's taking shape quickly. These sensors provide information that can be associated with farming yields. It may seem like science fiction, but we're living in a world where a bag of potatoes can have a barcode that you can scan with your smartphone in order to access information about the soil that yielded them. A future where farms can market themselves and have loyal consumers track their yields for purchase is not far-fetched. 
7. Vertical Farming - Vertical farming has been a science fiction topic as far back as the 1950s and perhaps further, and now it's not only scientifically viable but will be financially viable within the decade. Vertical farm technology Vertical farming a component of urban agriculture is the practice of producing food in vertically stacked layers. This offers many advantages. Perhaps the most obvious is the ability to grow within urban environments and thus have fresher foods available faster and at lower costs. However, vertical farming won't be limited to just urban environments like initially expected. Farmers in all areas can use it to make better use of available land and to grow crops that wouldn't normally be viable in those locations.  
8. Precision agriculture - Farming management based on observing (and responding to) intra-field variations. With satellite imagery and advanced sensors, farmers can optimize returns on inputs while preserving resources at ever larger scales. Further understanding of crop variability, geolocated weather data and precise sensors should allow improved automated decision-making and complementary planting techniques.

9.0 GLOSSARY OF ALL EMERGING AGRICULTURAL TECHNOLOGIES

Advanced biofuels - In the future, farmers will grow more than just corn to produce advanced biofuels. This new classification of fuels is 2nd and 3rd generation biofuels, which reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 50% compared to gasoline or diesel produced in 2005. Corn ethanol is not considered an advanced biofuel. Instead, fuels like biodiesel made from soybean oil and ethanol made from Brazilian sugarcane are classified as advanced biofuels. Many products from advanced biofuels will be hydrocarbon-based molecules that are interchangeable and will not require separate pumps, pipelines, or new flex fuel cars. The advanced biofuels and products include biodiesel-ester, biogas, butanol, ethanol, renewable crude oil, renewable diesel-hydrocarbon, renewable jet fuel and renewable gasoline.

Apps - Many agricultural apps are available on tablets and mobile devices showing farmers' quick adoption of mobile and tablet technology. There are apps available to farmers for checking commodity prices, monitoring the weather, planning optimum seeding rates, navigating their way through farm shows, managing data from the cab, mapping field boundaries, soil sampling, and much more.

Autonomous - Introduction of autonomous tractors has commenced, and companies have introduced vehicles that drive without human operators. Autonomous Harvest System where the tractor/grain cart runs between the combine and unloading site without an operator are already in the fields! The tractor is outfitted with sensors, cameras, radar, GPS and guidance equipment to safely navigate through the field. The combine operator oversees it and issues commands to the tractor. 

Big Data - Big Data is the word used to describe the massive amounts of information being collected and stored on all humans. On the farm, this data may include crop yield history, product usage, order status, payment history, vehicle status, and field data such as soil types, moisture levels, available nutrients, pest pressures, and weather-all tied to a geo-referenced dot on a map. These mounds of data have become big business for companies, ready to step in to store, manage and analyze the information for the end purpose of helping farmers make better business decisions. Faster processing speeds, Cloud-based storage, and advanced analytics are giving rise to these tools, moving us from an era of precision data to decision data. Farmers, who have been historically private about their business affairs, are giving companies access to their information out of survival, knowing that the stockpiles of information will be used to take the guesswork out of producing a crop.

Biologicals - The global market for biologicals is projected to grow to approximately $3 billion by 2020. While there is confusion over the product category itself, which includes biorationals, biostimulants and biopesticides, there is no doubt it will grow. More biological products are being incorporated into conventional corn and soybean farming as part of a pest management and/or plant health program. 

Brown revolution - The Brown Revolution refers to soil as a factory for increasing yields. Research for the Brown Revolution focuses on soil microbes that convert sunlight, water, CO2 and crop residue into crop yields. Factors that play into this are moisture, nutrients, crop residue, tillage practices and pest control. In other words, it's all about getting your soil in top condition to produce top yields.

CAN bus - Controller area network - CAN bus - is an integrated electronics network that originated in the auto industry. It allows multiple controllers to exchange information on a single circuit or "bus," allowing for such things as raising and lowering all four windows of a car. The same technology now dominates farm machinery to automate complex sequences such as turning a tractor and raising an implement at end rows. 

Cloud computing - Accessing remote computing resources through the internet - so-called cloud computing - is becoming commonplace in agriculture. Powered by wireless connectivity, typically through cellular modems, cloud computing capabilities make it possible to eliminate the frustration of shuffling thumb drives or hard disks. Cloud-based precision software options provide any-time, any-where data access. Linking to high-powered computers and sophisticated software promises to streamline decision-making is now possible.

Drought tolerance - The drought-tolerant hybrids will be vital for maintaining yields as droughts hit many areas. But companies are racing to meet demand. Companies like Monsanto (GenuityDroughtGard corn hybrids) and DuPont Pioneer (Optimum Aquamax drought-tolerant hybrids) are in the market already. Drought-tolerance research is being conducted in soybeans, too. 

Electric-driven motors - There are three forms of tractor power: mechanical, hydraulic, and electrical. Agricultural engineers are studying how to exploit those forms of tractor power to improve efficiencies of the tractor implement system. Additional research is being done on mechanical power, and whether it is the most efficient way. Operations that require a variable-speed drive, like planting or spraying, have historically been powered by hydraulics. Planter manufacturers all have come out with electric-motor-driven seed meters, for better seed placement and faster planting speeds (than mechanical systems that use chains and sprockets).

FMIS - Farm management information systems - Precision farming is going beyond GPS-based field guidance and control systems. Now it is integrated with accounting software programs called farm management information systems (FMIS) to help farmers manage their business. Such systems include geo-referenced records management, business planning, cash flow projections, systems decision making, and equipment utilization. 

Genome sequencing - Seed companies now churn out millions of data points in a given day that will contribute to the development of new seed products. Computers and number-crunching software have allowed breeders to analyze these vast amounts of data faster and more efficiently, which means companies are able to bring new seed products to the market much faster than in the past. Seed companies have their own proprietary technology for this software. Seed companies describes their process as a funnel where their DNA data points flow, and where gene mapping, breeding, trait integration, precision phenotyping and finally, product development happens.

Geofencing - A popular feature on telematics systems that keep track of farm equipment in the field, geofencing allows the user to build a virtual fence around equipment using GPS coordinates. So when equipment leaves the fenced-in area, the telematics system sends a text message or e-mail alert. This can help avert theft, or simply let you know that your planter, sprayer or combine has finished work in a field and is moving on to the next. 

Geospatial technologies - GIS in agriculture helps farmers to achieve increased production and reduced costs by enabling better management of land resources. Agricultural mapping is becoming crucial for monitoring and management of soil and irrigation of farmlands. It is facilitating agricultural development and rural development.

GLONASS - The United States' Global Positioning System (GPS) is the big name in satellite-based navigation systems. But the Russian-built Global Orbiting Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS) is playing an increasingly important role in high-end navigation systems used in agriculture and other industries. This is because the total number of satellites visible to a navigation receiver affects accuracy. So using a navigation receiver that can access both GPS and GLONASS satellites helps assure the best possible accuracy. Receivers that can receive both GPS and GLONASS satellite signals often are called GNSS (global navigation satellite system) receivers.

Hybrid tractors - New hybrid technology, similar to that used in hybrid cars, is being used in farm vehicles to cut fuel costs while reducing harmful emissions from diesel engines. One type of hybrid technology is hydrogen power, showcased on New Holland's NH2 prototype tractor. It is powered by a hydrogen fuel cell that runs electric motors on the tractor. Diesel-electric hybrids are another type of hybrid where the traditional diesel engine generates power, but electric motors work in place of a standard transmission to transfer power to the ground. The firmJohn Deere showed a concept hybrid called the "Multifuel Tractor," which runs on different mineral or plant fuels in a single tank. 

Insect resistance - Weeds are not the only pests becoming resistant to crop protection products. Insects have joined the crowd and are showing their ability to adapt and overcome genetically enhanced traits, insecticides and plant breeding programs. Corn rootworm has developed resistance to the Bt corn trait, which targets rootworms. The techniques include crop rotation; fulfilling refuge requirements for non-Bt corn; switching traits from year to year; and returning to an integrated pest management (IPM) approach rather than planting and leaving the crop alone until harvest without scouting. 

Lightweight metals - Aluminum, magnesium and titanium alloy shave been used for years in the aerospace and automotive industries to reduce the weight, carbon emission and fuel consumption of the structural designs. Because these lightweight materials cost more than standard steel, they've had limited use in agriculture. But now, due to harmful effects of soil compaction, the farm machinery industry is placing more emphasis on materials that lessen the weight of farm vehicles and equipment while also improving fuel economy. Some of the machines developed make more use of aluminum because of its strength and low weight.

Micronutrients - Farmers continue to fine-tune their crop nutrient applications beyond traditional N-P-K (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium) fertilizer content in an effort to boost yields and incomes. Some farmers now routinely apply micronutrients as seed treatments or in starter fertilizer, near the seed, to help boost early growth and plant health. Micronutrient deficiencies vary by soil type (particularly sandy soils), pH, soil conditions and region. Combining soil test analysis with visual inspections and plant analysis is the best way to accurately determine whether any micronutrients are a limiting factor to yields in specific fields. 

Nutrient sensors - Sophisticated sensors are now used to detect nutrient levels in crops for the precise application of nitrogen fertilizer. The sensors emit light onto the crop canopy and measure the amount of light reflected back to the sensor. The information is used to determine the crop's nitrogen requirements. Several companies market these sensors. 

Polymers - With the explosion in seed treatments and expensive seed traits, a final polymer coating on the seed makes big sense (cents). New polymer coatings are available to better preserve the seed. The polymer helps reduce dustoff from the expensive seed treatments, which in turn reduces chemical exposure to workers. The new polymers also aid flowability of seed in the increasingly more precise and expensive planters.

Precision agriculture - Also called satellite farming or site specific crop management (SSCM), precision farming is a farming management concept based on observing, measuring and responding to inter and intra-field variability in crops. It involves the precise application of agricultural inputs with respect to soil, weather and crop need to improve productivity, quality, and profitability in agriculture.

Robots - Research on robots continues to progress as engineers tackle reliability issues of the small task masters. Concept robots are nearing commercialization in Europe, though. One German robot is built to sense crop conditions, apply chemicals and even pull weeds. In contrast to operator-run equipment, robots are small and expected to be used in multiple numbers.

Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS) - The Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS) program is good for ethanol but continues to be a contentious program among agricultural groups. The goal for RFS2 is to achieve significant reductions of greenhouse gas emissions from the use of renewable fuels, reduce imported oil, and encourage development of the renewable fuels industry. 

Telematics - Telematic systems use cellular modems to monitor machine performance and keep track of equipment in the field in real time. Increasingly, they are being offered as standard equipment on tractors, combines and sprayers as manufacturers look for ways to help customers boost efficiency and improve customer service and reduce warranty costs. Typically, they allow operators to monitor equipment locations in real time, as well as access a history of previous locations.

Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) or Drones - Commonly known as drones, UAVs could become a low-cost precision ag scouting tool. As electronics and communications device prices have fallen, companies have begun selling small fixed-wing and helicopter drones for as little as $500. These UAVs, which can be programmed to follow designated flight paths, are legal to operate in USA as long as visual contact is maintained and altitude limits are followed.

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