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Nanotechnology in India
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The ideas and concepts behind nanoscience and nanotechnology started with a talk entitled "There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom" by physicist Richard Feynman at an American Physical Society meeting at the California Institute of Technology (CalTech) on December 29, 1959, long before the term nanotechnology was used. In his talk, Feynman described a process in which scientists would be able to manipulate and control individual atoms and molecules. Over a decade later, in his explorations of ultraprecision machining, Professor Norio Taniguchi coined the term nanotechnology. It wasn't until 1981, with the development of the scanning tunneling microscope that could "see" individual atoms, that modern nanotechnology began.
Nanotechnology, primarily deals with understanding and control of matter at dimension of roughly 100 nm and below. It has a cross-sectoral application and an interdisciplinary orientation. At this scale, the physical, chemical and biological properties of materials differ from the properties of individual atoms and molecules or bulk matter, which enable novel applications. Nanotechnology research and development is directed towards understanding and creating improved materials, devices and systems that exploit these properties as they are discovered and characterized.
2.0 Applications of Nanotechnology
There are many applications of nanotechnology such as in the area of medicine, chemistry and environment, energy, agriculture, information and communication, heavy industry and consumer goods. The alleged potential of this technology has garnered the attention of both developed and developing countries across the globe. The US National Science Foundation (NSF) has listed it as one of six priority areas; it is one of the themes in the EU Framework Program for Research and Technological Development in Europe; and it has been the focus of research in countries worldwide. Globally, investments have been made, nanotechnology programmes initiated and research and development has commenced. It is observed that US, Japan, and Germany dominate the current R&D effort in nanotechnology with the country focus largely based on their own expertise and needs. Globally, there has been an increase in expenditure by both governments and private companies in nanotechnology developments.
Total global expenditure (public + private) in nanotechnology R&D in 2007 amounted to $13.5 billion, up 14% from in 2006. Expenditure by corporations in nanotechnology R&D in 2007 witnessed a 23% increase over 2006 to reach $6.6 billion, passing government spending for the first time.
Commercially, nanotechnology majorly impacts materials and manufacturing, electronics and health care and life sciences. According to the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars' Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies (2009 there are more than 1000 company-identified nanotechnology products on the market, the majority being produced by companies based in USA. The categorisation of nanotechnology products indicates a concentration in the fields of health and fitness products (cosmetics, clothing, personal care and sporting equipment). The analysis of the product category suggests that nanotechnology mainly impacts the consumer goods industries. An estimate by Lux Research indicates that nanotechnology-derived revenues will attain 15% of projected global manufacturing output ($2.6 trillion) in 2014 as compared to 0.1% in 2006 ($50 billion).
3.0 NANOTECHNOLOGY INITIATIVES IN INDIA
In 2001, The Government of India launched the Nanoscience and Technology Initiative (NSTI) as a mission mode programme with a budget of approximately Rupees 60 million. The Department of Science and Technology (DST) has been acting as the nodal agency. This initiative is now called the Nano Mission. The total budget proposed for various schemes and programmes run by the DST in the Eleventh Five Year Plan (2007-12) was Rupees 193 billion. Influential scientists such as C.N.R. Rao and the former Indian President, Shri Abdul Kalam, have been instrumental in mobilizing this extensive government support for nanotechnology.
The main driving force has been the urge to be at the forefront of this technological wave, so as 'not to miss the bus'. Right from the start government priority has been to create a strong institutional base, infrastructure support, and skilled manpower to develop nanoscience and technology. A step towards these has been the creation of a series of centres of excellence. Under the Nano Mission a more outward-looking focus was adopted that laid more emphasis on applications. Public-private partnerships have received more attention and members from industry were included in the Nano Mission organization which earlier was dominated by scientists from the public research institutes.
3.1 Institutional base for nanotechnology in India
After creation of centres of excellence by the DST, a host of other government agencies have stepped in. The Department of Information Technology and the Defense Research and Development Organisation have dedicated specific programs for nanotechnology and the Department of Biotechnology, Department of Atomic Energy, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Indian Council for Medical Research and the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy are also funding initiatives in nanotechnology R&D. India has also entered into bilateral nanotechnology programmes with the European Union, Germany, Italy, Taiwan and the USA. Among the tangible outcomes was the creation in 2004 of a National Centre for Nanomaterials in collaboration with the USA, Germany, Japan, Russia, and the Ukraine. in April 2008 the Planning Commission of India recommended that nanotechnology become one of six areas for investment as a means of boosting agricultural productivity. The state governments of Karnataka, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Haryana, Andhra Pradesh and Himachal Pradesh have taken initiatives to support nanotechnology developments.
The Indian industry woke up to the possibilities of nanotechnology relatively later but their involvement is slowly increasing. The Confederation of Indian Industry (CII) has taken initiatives to increase industry involvement in nanotechnology. Companies like Tata Steel, Tata Chemicals, Mahindra and Mahindra, Nicholas, Piramal and Intel are estimated to have invested over Rs 1.2 billion in nanotechnology R&D. Two large Indian companies, Reliance and Tata Chemicals, have set up nanotechnology R&D centres in Pune.
Although societal actors have been generally absent, one NGO entered the scene in 2007. Funded by the International Development Research Centre in Canada, The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI) has since deployed a series of activities in the field of nanotechnology. Through a number of publications and workshops they have drawn attention to issues such as governance, toxicology, and capacity building.
3.2 Regulatory framework
India still lacks an effective regulatory mechanism for nanotechnology. A major category of risk related areas come under the responsibility of Ministry of Environment and Forest and Climate change (MoEFCC) but none of the Ministry’s acts and legislation explicitly identify nanoparticles as a potential hazard.
The Indian Institute of Toxicology Research and the National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research conducted studies on environmental health and safety aspects of nanotechnology. Along with these institutes, until the turn of the last decade it was TERI that drew most attention to environmental, health and safety issues, and ethical, legal and social issues related to nanotechnology.
As for standardization, the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) accepted an invitation to participate in the technical committee on nanotechnology standards of the International Organization for Standardization. Several studied have consequently been taken up but progress remains unclear.
There is a clear emphasis on fostering public-private partnerships (PPP) to meet the demands of developing a capital-intensive technology such as nanotechnology. The Nano Mission lays down as one of its objectives that 'special effort will be made to involve the industrial sector into nanotechnology R&D directly or through PPP ventures'. Of the six PPP launched under the Mission, three are in the pharmaceutical sector. CSIR's flagship program “New Millennium Indian Technology Leadership Initiative (NMITLI)”, India's largest public-private partnership scheme also has a few nanoprojects under its umbrella and is an initiative by the government to get industry on board with public funded R&D. A Planning Commission study has called for the creation of a National Institute of Nanotechnology in Agriculture (NINA) under National Agricultural Research System.
3.3 Funding
Funding for nanotechnology in India is debated primarily on two courts; the quantum of funding and concerns over the manner in which the funding is made. Whereas some actors are satisfied with the amount of money available for nanotechnology R&D, others opine that not nearly enough is being invested. On the one hand, those satisfied with the level of funding applaud government investments and recognize that the levels of funding are relatively high in relation to other fields of research in India. On the other hand, critics draw attention to the low investments per capita the limited set of funding initiatives, and the reluctance of India's industry to invest in nanotechnology R&D. Furthermore, critics have argued that in comparison to some foreign countries, India's investments are 'a drop in the ocean'. This discussion originated before the start of the Nano Mission but continued after this substantive funding initiative was started. Some discussion also focuses on the limited availability of venture capital. Allegedly, the few investors that can be found on the Indian market are only interested in finished products and in companies that have already passed the venture funding stage.
Connected to these diverging views about the level of funding are some concerns over the manner in which these investments are made, particularly over the lack of a clear development strategy. From time to time various actors have called for a strategy that is more transparent and detailed than current schemes. Many scientists, when asked for measures to enhance nanotechnology activities, recommended that … a clear government policy on various areas of use of nanotechnology relevant to India (e.g. application to energy sector, agricultural sector etc.) should be worked out.
Reflecting the diverging views on the distribution of benefits, several Indian diaspora scientists have recommended that India focus on strategic areas rather than making generic investments in fundamental research TERI recommends the formulation of a roadmap containing a more detailed and deliverable-bound objectives.
3.4 Capacity
Another issue of recurrent debate concerning nanotechnology in India concerns the capacity of India to be successful in nanotechnology. Again we see radically opposing positions. Particularly with reference to the capacity of the scientific workforce the various opinions expressed could hardly be more divergent. Numerous scientists note that India has an 'excess of talent' and therefore is 'poised to benefit' (Sen 2008) from nanotechnology, whereas simultaneously, others opine that technical manpower is a major bottleneck in this field.The debate is often quickly narrowed to issues of education. However, educating, recruiting and supporting its next generation of scientists will be not only crucial but also absolutely necessary for India's future nanotech industry.
3.5 Commercialization and science-industry linkages
The commercialization of nanotechnology products and the linkages between science and industry are perhaps the issues that are most often addressed. Even the (then) President of India has repeatedly addressed the issue of connecting science with industry in the field of nanotechnology
Although there are quite some companies involved in nanotechnology, it is often suggested that the amount of products is not in line with the large expectations or with the investments made. Contrary to issues of capacity and funding, where discussions focus on the question of whether or not the supposed lack of capacity and funding is real, in the case of commercialization there seems to be unanimous agreement that commercialization is indeed a problem.
More specifically, discussions about the commercialization often focus on the connections between science and industry, the argument being that: India's expanding nanotechnology research is not translating into market products due to weak links between Indian scientific institutes and industry. The fault for this lies both with the companies and the scientists.
3.6 Regulation of risks
In India the focus for a long time was completely on benefits. The regulation of risks to the environment, health and safety became a subject of debate much later whereas, in several other countries involved in nanotechnology R&D, issues of risk had become an area of attention. As Srivastava and Chowdhury, two employees of TERI, put it: … the entire orientation of the current institutional and policy framework is towards strengthening technology development and its uptake by the industry. This has meant a significant neglect of the regulatory aspects relating to environmental, health, safety and ethical dimensions.
Nevertheless from 1995 onwards, the potential risks of nanotechnology increasingly became an issue of debate, partly due to the efforts by the TERI. In a series of reports, articles, and news items. TERI repeatedly addressed the potential risk of nanotechnology to the environment and human health as an issue worth discussing in the Indian context. A few years prior to that, a group of toxicologists at the Indian Institute of Toxicology Research had already began investigating the risks of nanotechnologies, partly through funding of the Department of Science and Technology and the European Framework Programs. By the end of the 2000s risks had been placed firmly on the agenda.
The discussion about potential risks almost exclusively focuses on regulatory aspects. But for the industry regulation is regarded as a potential obstacle to nanotechnology development. Seemingly particularly concerned about regulation slowing down technological developments, researchers from industry have called for faster approvals from regulatory authorities and the creation of a single window concept for regulatory mechanisms.
3.7 Distribution of benefits
For equitable development it is imperative that the benefits of nanotechnology reach everybody. In this aspect also there are two views. On the one hand several actors focus their attention towards what nanotechnology can do for 'the masses of India' . Scientists, government officials and NGOs alike have expressed the hope that nanotechnology enables the creation of products that can cater the needs of the poorest parts of the Indian population, with most attention going to the fields of energy, agriculture, and water.
A much cited example of such an application, particularly by foreign commentators, is a portable kit for the diagnosis of tuberculosis that was developed by India's Central Scientific Instruments Organisation. The kit is said to be quicker, cheaper, and use less blood than existing instruments for diagnosing tuberculosis and thus would be well-suited for rural areas with poor infrastructure.
On the other hand a lot of attention is paid to the economic growth that nanotechnology may bring. Although many authors mention the possibility of pro-poor applications, the main focus lies with the enormous market potential that nanotechnology allegedly brings. Former President Dr. Abdul Kalam for instance noted that in the next decade nanotechnology will play a dominant role in the global business environment and the TERI has also written that: … since nanoscience and technology is still emerging, it provides developing nations an opportunity to not only catch up with their developed counterparts but also offers the possibility to develop an advantage in core areas. However these two views on the distribution of potential benefits are not necessarily incompatible. Ensuring that benefits of nanotechnology reach the masses has a high profit potential.
3.8 Risk governance
Risk governance would include the laws, processes and institutions by which decisions regarding risk analysis, communication and management are taken and executed. It takes into cognizance both the structures (i.e. the actors who are the participants involved in the decision making process) and the process (i.e. the procedures that make decision making legitimate and participatory within the overall governance framework). An inclusive risk governance framework then would entail democratizing science by strengthening the involvement of key factors - policy makers, regulators, business, scientific and civil society communities. This inclusive framework would ensure that the debate around risks emanating from nanotechnology is not polarized. This entails an unbiased and transparent risk communication and upstream engagement with all stakeholders to address the hype or fears that surrounds the technology.
Due to its organic and inorganic applications, nanotechnology is very amenable to convergence processes.Technology convergence also draws together state and non-state actors (here, pharma MNCs and specialised international associations) who are increasingly engaged in governing and regulating transnational issues, which include technology transfer. In this regard, it is necessary to locate these actors within the broad rubric of institutional capacity, which would constrain and enable the development of an emerging technology to a significant extent. Institutional capacity, which includes the assets, skills and capabilities, constitutes the knowledge structure within a given society. The extent to which this knowledge base can grow depends on certain other factors that are extraneous to the immediate interests of the scientific community itself. For instance, denial of access to technology due to a restrictive patent regime can limit a country's capacity to benefit from it. Furthermore, every risk governance framework should seek to include stakeholders who are affected by the regulation, production and consumption of nanoapplications.
While local and national capabilities to undertake research as well as decisions on risks is built, developing countries must engage with the global community to develop standardized protocols, reference materials and other databases. A long term and dynamic strategy to address the issue of EHS impacts and risk from nanomaterials and nanoapplications is essential.
4.0 THE NEED FOR A NATIONAL STRATEGY
In order that India does not lag behind in nanotechnology, clear national strategies have to be formulated. Technology has to be linked with social priorities and goals. In general, in developing countries, the share of public investment in total nanotechnology R&D basket is relatively greater in comparison to private sector. Although the growing importance of private sector cannot be underestimated, but given that technology base for nanotechnology being in an embryonic phase, industry would not be able to sustain the research effort needed for the establishment of scientific and technological infrastructure.
Therefore, there is a stronger case for the role of government support for fundamental research. The government has played a predominant role in research effort in nanotechnology in terms of funding, establishing the scientific and technological infrastructure and developing human skills and capacity.
The role of the state is of prime importance in defining regulatory objectives, developing the ambit and then selecting the tools from the toolkit that would best facilitate the achievement of the objectives. Normally, the government priority at a given point of time also influences regulatory choices made. However, the State should strike a balance between promoting a technology and regulating its risks. Furthermore, the State can play a crucial role in resisting pressures of globalisation in the context of technology development. International trends in R&D lead to the development of certain products that can be classified as either high-end luxury goods or quality enhancement of products that benefit a small segment of society. The state particularly in the developing country context can set the agenda and resist the tendency to uncritically follow international trends in research that do not address their developmental needs.
A conceptual framework to assess national capability to respond to nanotechnology development needs to address the key opportunities and challenges created by this technology for developing countries in terms of the demands imposed on the science and technology infrastructure and by changing the nature of science and technology. Several issues emerge from the review of international developments in nanotechnology:
- there is a need for strong infrastructure to enable and stimulate R&D and commercialisation of nano products
- constraints and concerns among users must be addressed for successful deployment of technology
- appropriate strategies, policies and institutions are needed to engage with an emergent technology
- human resources with multidisciplinary perspectives is key for progress in nanotechnology
- there is a need for addressing nanotechnology risks in the societal context
- regulatory oversight and preparedness for nanotechnology is necessary to channelise research efforts in a specific direction
- capacity building of regulatory and monitoring agencies
- transparency and public involvement in the design and implementation of regulatory structure in nanotechnology should be ensured.
Developing capabilities in emerging technologies thus would require
- skills of both scientific and non-scientific kind, including regulatory bodies,
- a greater degree of linkages between various actors from academia, industry, policy makers would be necessary for successful market deployment of such technologies,
- the interdisciplinary approaches in nanotechnology would demand a different R&D strategy as well as reorientation of science and technology activities in universities, research institutes, funding agencies and industry with a conducive institutional setting facilitating interactive learning would be essential to respond to and develop nanotechnology,
- devising adaptive and responsive governance structures that can suitably regulate applications of nanotechnology in society, and
- a flexible, dynamic policy environment that has the ability to create the conditions required for both knowledge generation and its effective utilization would form an important dimension guiding the process of development of capabilities.
One of the key debates around nanotechnology regulation has been around whether there exists a need for a separate nanotechnology specific law to regulate the concerns around nanotechnology or not. A close look at the existing set of laws and rules in different areas of current and potential nanotechnology applications suggests that a nanotechnology specific legislation may not be necessary at this stage in India. Most of the challenges and concerns could be addressed by way of either intervention at the level of subordinate legislation or amendments in the existing instruments, or interventions at the level of implementation. Moreover, since nanotechnology being an emerging technology is still surrounded with uncertainty and lack of enough information about its impacts, instead of a definite nano-specific law, ensuring the capacity of existing regulations to address new risks as they become known would be the viable course forward. The most viable course would be to ensure the capacity of existing regulations.
Applications of nanotechnology, owing to their very nature, interaction with other technologies, and extent are subject to several regulations already. However, most of these existing regulations require revision before they are able to regulate the risks associated with nanotechnology. In this context, precautionary principle, which has already been adopted in environmental regulation, should be extended to nanotechnology regulation, considering the uncertainties. However, the principle should be applied in a judicious manner taking a middle ground, reconciling the need to address risks and using the technology to address development needs.
6.0 CHALLENGES
Producing the nanomaterials in large enough volumes, with consistent quality, at acceptable costs. Supplying the nanomaterials in a form (such as proper particle size, surface chemistry, dispersion capability, compatibility with various media, etc.) that would allow integration into the process. Engineering and customizing the nano-based system to local requirements.
Addressing environmental, health and safety concerns in the use and disposal of nano products. One of the biggest challenges has been in terms of the interdisciplinary nature of nanotechnology per se and the scope of its applications. This has lead to significant overlaps in the areas for R&D support identified by different agencies.
The gap between basic research and application is another challenge in nanotechnology, like several other technologies. There is poor lab-firm integration which is compounded by the paucity of skilled manpower that could provide linkages between the technology and commercial domains.
Being cost and risk intensive, and being dependent upon sophisticated and complex equipment, technical know-how and capacity, financial constraints often act as an impediment in this regard. The main challenges faced by regulatory institutions currently relate to the regulatory capacity, information asymmetry and absence of inter-agency coordination.
- Another challenge that nanotechnologists should address in their research is due priority to risk research. Currently, funding allocated for analysing risks from nanotechnology is abysmally low compared to the vast amounts invested for its commercial applications. On the other hand, other experts argue that research related to toxicity and risk assessment must be undertaken once the applicability of specific nano-applications are ascertained, especially when the prototype of the product has been developed and is available for field testing. This strategy might help enable a balanced approach between technology development and addressing risk issues. Moreover, it could also facilitate the judicious allotment of already constrained financial resources as well as prevent an overzealous focus on risk issues especially in the nascent stages of product development that might in turn prevent the emergence of socially useful and significant applications.
- Venture capital mechanisms are nearly non-existent. This made taking research forward to technology development in this arena sluggish.
Given that nanotechnology is comprehensive in its reach and interdisciplinary in nature, ensuring the accountability of actors involved in its application and regulation is essential.
Scientific research should not overwhelm public perception and the social analysis of technology. Currently, there exists a trust deficit between the optimism of the scientific community and the apprehensions expressed by public interest groups regarding nanotechnology's potential. Bridging this gap would be critical in determining the extent to which India can avail of international opportunities to enhance its capabilities on the development front.
7.0 NANO TECHNOLOGY INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA
Nano Technology is a knowledge-intensive and "enabling technology" which is expected to influence a wide range of products and processes with far-reaching implications for national economy and development. The Government of India, in May 2007, approved the launch of a Mission on Nano Science and Technology (Nano Mission) with an allocation of Rs. 1000 crore for 5 years.
The Department of Science and Technology is the nodal agency for implementing the Nano Mission. Capacity-building in this upcoming area of research will be of utmost importance for the Nano Mission so that India emerges as a global knowledge-hub in this field. For this, research on fundamental aspects of Nano Science and training of large number of manpower will receive prime attention. Equally importantly, the Nano Mission will strive for development of products and processes for national development, especially in areas of national relevance like safe drinking water, materials development, sensors development, drug delivery, etc. For this, it will forge linkages between educational and research institutions and industry and promote Public Private Partnerships.
The Nano Mission has been structured in a fashion so as to achieve synergy between the national research efforts of various agencies in Nano Science and Technology and launch new programmes in a concerted fashion. International collaborative research efforts will also be made wherever required.
Nanotechnology, the manipulation of matter at the atomic and molecular scale to create materials with remarkably varied and new properties, is a rapidly expanding area of research with huge potential to revolutionize our lives and to provide technological solutions to our problems in agriculture, energy, the environment and medicine. In order to fully realize this potential, we need to be able to control the synthesis of nanoparticles, the construction of nano-devices, and the characterization of materials on the nanoscale and to understand the effects of these things on environment and health. INST will bring together chemists, physicists and materials scientists at the forefront of the science of making and characterizing materials at the nanoscale, with biologists and biochemists applying these discoveries in the agricultural, medical, biological sphere. It brings together research-active basic and applied scientists from different backgrounds in an intimate atmosphere to learn about the needs and scientific advances in their respective fields and to build interactions and collaborations.
The Institute of Nano Science and Technology (INST) Mohali (Punjab) is an autonomous institution of Department of Science and Technology (DST), Government of India under the Society Registration Act, 1960. Under the umbrella of National Mission on Nano Science and Technology (NANO MISSION), which aims to promote growth and outreach of nanoscience and technology to benefit the country, INST has been set up to undertake research and generate products/devices and technology in the area of Nanoscience and Technology. INST has started its operations from January 2013, under the directorship of Professor Ashok K Ganguli. The institute aims to carry out research in the diverse and rapidly growing areas of nanoscience and technology with specific emphasis on the following areas: agricultural nanotechnology, sensors, medical nanotechnology, microfluidics based technologies, nanotechnology based solutions for energy and environment, nanobiotechnology. Given below are some remarkable developments.
7.1 Metal foam obliterates bullets - and that's just the beginning
Composite metal foams (CMFs) are tough enough to turn an armor-piercing bullet into dust on impact. Given that these foams are also lighter than metal plating, the material has obvious implications for creating new types of body and vehicle armor - and that's just the beginning of its potential uses. Afsaneh Rabiei, a professor of mechanical and aerospace engineering at NC State, has spent years developing CMFs and investigating their unusual properties. The video seen here shows a composite armor made out of her composite metal foams. The bullet in the video is a 7.62 x 63 millimeter M2 armor piercing projectile, which was fired according to the standard testing procedures established by the National Institute of Justice (NIJ). And the results were dramatic.
"We could stop the bullet at a total thickness of less than an inch, while the indentation on the back was less than 8 millimeters," Rabiei says. "To put that in context, the NIJ standard allows up to 44 millimeters indentation in the back of an armor." The results of that study were published in 2015.
But there are many applications that require a material to be more than just incredibly light and strong. For example, applications from space exploration to shipping nuclear waste require a material to be not only light and strong, but also capable of withstanding extremely high temperatures and blocking radiation.
7.2 New Material Mimics Bone To Create Better Biomedical Implants
A "metal foam" that has a similar elasticity to bone could mean a new generation of biomedical implants that would avoid bone rejection that often results from more rigid implant materials, such as titanium. Researchers at North Carolina State University have developed the metal foam, which is even lighter than solid aluminum and can be made of 100 percent steel or a combination of steel and aluminum.
In a new paper, researchers have reported recent findings that, in addition to the extraordinary high-energy absorption capability and light weight of their novel composite foams, the "modulus of elasticity" of the foam is very similar to that of bone. Modulus of elasticity measures a material's ability to deform when pressure is applied and then return to its original shape when pressure is removed. The rough surface of the foam would also foster bone growth into the implant, improving the strength of implant. "When an orthopedic or dental implant is placed in the body to replace a bone or a part of a bone, it needs to handle the loads in the same way as its surrounding bone," Prof Afsaneh Rabiei says.
"If the modulus of elasticity of the implant is too much bigger than the bone, the implant will take over the load bearing and the surrounding bone will start to die. This will cause the loosening of the implant and eventually ends in failure. This is known as "'stress shielding.'" When this happens, the patient will need a revision surgery to replace the implant. Our composite foam can be a perfect match as an implant to prevent stress shielding," Rabiei explains.
8.0 INTEL’S AMAZING NANO-JOURNEY!
In 1971 a small company called Intel released the 4004, its first ever microprocessor. The chip, measuring 12 square millimetres, contained 2,300 transistors-tiny electrical switches representing the 1s and 0s that are the basic language of computers. The gap between each transistor was 10,000 nanometres (billionths of a metre) in size, about as big as a red blood cell. The result was a miracle of miniaturisation, but still on something close to a human scale. A child with a decent microscope could have counted the individual transistors of the 4004.
The transistors on the Skylake chips Intel makes are much smaller! The chips themselves are ten times the size of the 4004, but at a spacing of just 14 nanometres (nm) their transistors are invisible, for they are far smaller than the wavelengths of light human eyes and microscopes use. In 1965 Gordon Moore, the later-day founder of Intel, wrote a paper noting that the number of electronic components which could be crammed into an integrated circuit was doubling every year. This exponential increase came to be known as Moore's law.
In the 1970s the rate of doubling was reduced to once every two years. Even so, you would have had to be very brave to look at one of Intel's 4004s in 1971 and believe that such a law would continue to hold for 44 years. After all, double something 22 times and you have 4m times more of it, or perhaps something 4m times better. But that is indeed what has happened. Intel does not publish transistor counts for its Skylake chips, but whereas the 4004 had 2,300 of them, the company's Xeon Haswell E-5, launched in 2014, sports over 5 billion, just 22 nm apart.
Moore's law is not a law in the sense of, say, Newton's laws of motion. But Intel, which has for decades been the leading maker of microprocessors, and the rest of the industry turned it into a self-fulfilling prophecy.
That fulfilment was made possible largely because transistors have the unusual quality of getting better as they get smaller; a small transistor can be turned on and off with less power and at greater speeds than a larger one. This meant that you could use more and faster transistors without needing more power or generating more waste heat, and thus that chips could get bigger as well as better. That fulfilment was made possible largely because transistors have the unusual quality of getting better as they get smaller; a small transistor can be turned on and off with less power and at greater speeds than a larger one. This meant that you could use more and faster transistors without needing more power or generating more waste heat, and thus that chips could get bigger as well as better.
The components are approaching a fundamental limit of smallness: the atom.
Moore's law has not hit a brick wall. Chipmakers are spending billions on new designs and materials that may make transistors amenable to a bit more shrinkage and allow another few turns of the exponential crank. They are also exploring ways in which performance can be improved with customised designs and cleverer programming. In the past the relentless doubling and redoubling of computing power meant there was less of an incentive to experiment with other sorts of improvement.
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