UPSC IAS exam preparation - Technology and environmental issues in India - Lecture 13

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India's nuclear research programme (NRP)

[हिंदी में पढ़ें ]

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1.0 INTRODUCTION

India has one of the most successful nuclear programmes  (NRP) in the world. It includes power generation, applications in agriculture, medical sciences, industry and other areas. The Indian NRP is focused on peaceful purposes. Acknowledged as one of the advanced countries in nuclear technology, India is self-reliant and excels in the expertise covering the complete nuclear cycle from exploration and mining to power generation and from applications of nuclear technology to waste management and other safety issues.

Although nuclear armament has not been the thrust area of India's nuclear programme, India did visualize a need to adopt a more comprehensive approach to security encompassing economic strength, internal cohesion and technological upgradation. In the emerging global scenario, India remains a firm and consistent proponent of general and complete global nuclear disarmament, as against any discriminatory doctrine/treaty in this regard.

Even India's nuclear weapon capability is meant only for self-defence and seeks only to ensure that India's security, independence and integrity are not threatened in future. It is natural for a peace loving nation like India to take initiatives that aim to reduce the threat of break out of nuclear war and also to take initiatives that promote peaceful and more meaningful applications of nuclear technology.

2.0 ORGANIZATIONAL SET-UP IN INDIA

2.1 Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) 

The Indian Atomic Energy Commission was first set up in August 1948 in the then Department of Scientific Research, which was created a few months earlier in June 1948. The Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) was set up on August 3, 1954 under the direct charge of the Prime Minister through a Presidential Order. Subsequently, in accordance with a Government Resolution dated March 1, 1958, the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) was established in the Department of Atomic Energy.

2.2 Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB)

The AERB is India's nuclear safety organization, created in 1983 to ensure that the use of ionising radiation and nuclear energy in India does not cause undue risk to health or environment. The AERB is responsible for monitoring all of the nuclear matters that fall under the DAE. It reports to the AEC. It is currently responsible for overseeing the design and construction of five reactors and the safe operations of twenty already-established reactors, as well as regulation at all other nuclear facilities in the country.

2.3 Department of Atomic Energy (DAE)

The Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) was established in 1954, with the following mandate.

1. To generate safe, economic electrical power from nuclear energy.
2. To build research reactors and to utilize the radioisotopes produced in these reactors for application in the field of agriculture and medicine.
3. To develop advanced technology in areas such as accelerators, lasers, biochemistry, information technology and material including development of non-nuclear and strategic materials like titanium.
4. To encourage technology transfers and interaction with industry for industrial and social development.
5. To provide necessary support to basic research in nuclear energy and related fields of science.
6. To encourage international cooperation in advanced are of research and in mega-science projects to realize the benefits of state-of-the-art science and technologies.

The important institutions under the Department of Atomic Energy includes BARC, Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research (IGCAR), Nuclear Power Corporation of India (NPCIL), Centre for Advanced Tehnology (CAT), Indian Rare Earth Limited (IREL), Atomic Minerals Division (AMD), Electronic Corporation of india Limited, Variable energy Cyclotron Centre (VECC), Uranium Corporation of India Limited, Heavy Water board, Nuclear Fuel Complex, and Bhartiya Nabhikiya Vidyut Nigam Ltd. (BHAVINI).

3.0 INDIA'S THREE STAGE NUCLEAR POWER PROGRAMME

In order to secure India’s long term energy independence, Dr. Homi J. Bhabha formulated India’s three stage nuclear programme. This was accomplished through the use of uranium and thorium reserves found in the monazite sands of coastal regions of South India. The ultimate focus of the programme is on enabling the thorium reserves of India to be utilized in meeting the country's energy requirements. Thorium is particularly attractive for India, as it has only around 1-2% of the global uranium reserves, but one of the largest shares of global thorium reserves at about 30% of the total world thorium reserves. 

Since the inception of the programme, India has built up its capacity in the area of nuclear research to the extent that it is now generally considered as the leader of thorium based research in the world. As of 2012, the first stage consisting of the PHWRs is near completion of its planned goals, the second stage consisting of fast breeder reactors is poised to go into operation within one year, and the third stage consisting of AHWRs is slated to begin construction so that its commissioning can be done by 2020.

The main objective of the three-stage nuclear programme is to develop nuclear energy by working around India's limited uranium resources.  The following are the stages.

3.1 Stage I - Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR)

In the first stage of the programme, natural uranium fuelled PHWR produce electricity while generating plutonium-239 as by-product. Heavy water is used as moderator and coolant. PHWRs was a natural choice for implementing the first -stage because it had the most efficient reactor design in terms of uranium utilization, and the existing Indian infrastructure in the 1960s allowed for quick adoption of the PHWR technology. India correctly calculated that it would be easier to create heavy water production facilities (required for PHWRs) than uranium enrichment facilities (required for LWRs). The design, construction and the operation of these reactors are undertaken by public sector undertaking, NPCIL (Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited).

Almost the entire existing base of Indian nuclear power (4780 MW) is composed of first stage PHWRs, with the exception of the two Boiling Water Reactor (BWR) units at Tarapur.

3.2 Stage II - Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR)

In the second stage, FBRs would use a mixed oxide (MOX) fuel made from plutonium-239, recovered by reprocessing spent fuel from the first stage, and natural uranium. In FBRs, plutonium-239 undergoes fission to produce energy, while the uranlum-238 present in the mixed oxide fuei transmutes to additional plutonium-239. Thus, the Stage II FBRs are designed to "breed" more fuei than they consume. Once the inventory of plutonium-239 is built up thorium can be introduced as a blanket material in the reactor and transmuted to uranium-233 for use in the third stage.

The design of the country's first fast breeder, called Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR), was done by Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research (IGCAR). Bharatiya Nabhikiya Vidyut Nigam Ltd (Bhavini), a public sector company under the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE), has been given the responsibility to build the fast breeder reactors in India. The construction of this PFBR at Kalpakkam is due to be completed in 2012.

In addition, the country proposes to undertake the construction of four FBRs as part of the 12th Five Year Plan spanning 2012-17, thus targeting 2500 MW from the five reactors. One of these five reactors is planned to be operated with metallic fuel instead of oxide fuel, since the design will have the flexibility to accept metallic fuel, although the reference design is for oxide fuel. Indian government has already allotted Rs.250 crore for pre-project activities for two more 500 MW units, although the location is yet to be finalised.

3.3 Stage III - Thorium Based Reactors

A Stage III reactor or an Advanced nuclear power system involves a self-sustaining series of thorium-232 and uranium-233 fuelled reactors. This would be a thermal breeder reactor, which in principle can be refueled - after its initial fuel charge - using only naturally occurring thorium. The ongoing development of 300 Mwe advanced heavy water reactor (AHWR) at BARC concerns thorium utilization and its demonstration.

According to the three stage programme, Indian nuclear energy could grow to about 10 GW through PHWRs fueled by domestic uranium, and the growth above that would have to come trom FBRs till about 50GW. The third stage is to be deployed only after this capacity has been achieved.

4.0 THORIUM FUEL CYCLE

Thorium is a naturally-occurring, slightly radioactive metal discovered in 1828 by the Swedish chemist Jons Jakob Berzelius, who named it after Thor, the Norse god of thunder. It is found in small amounts in most rocks and soils, where it is about three times more abundant than uranium. Soil commonly contains an average of around 6 parts per million (ppm) of thorium. Thorium exists in nature in a single isotopic form - Th-232 - which decays very slowly (its half-life is about three times the age of the earth). The decay chains of natural thorium and uranium gives rise to minute traces of Th-228, Th-230 and Th-234, but the presence of these in mass terms is negligible.

When pure, thorium is a silvery white metal that retains its lustre for several months. However,  thorium slowly tarnishes in air, becoming grey and eventually black. Thorium oxide (ThO2), also called thoria, has one of the highest melting points of all oxides (3300°C). When heated in air, thorium metal turnings ignite and burn brilliantly with white light. Because of these properties, thorium has found applications in light bulb elements, lantern mantles, arc-light lamps, welding electrodes and heat-resistant ceramics. Glass containing thorium oxide has a high refractive index and dispersion and is used in high quality lenses for cameras and scientific instruments.

Thorium is a very promising power source for future decades and generations. It is far more plentiful in nature then uranium. A sustainable fuel cycle for thousands of years on a planet where a population of over nine billion is anticipated by 2050 can be ensured. It is fertile not fissile and can only be used in conjunction with fissile materials as a nuclear fuel. Like uranium, because of its energy density, it is far more cost effective than the hydro carbons and the so called "renewables".

However a lot more basic physics and economic analysis is needed before commercial thorium based reactors become available. The lead in this area is currently held by India, China and Japan although the U.S.A., Canada, U.K. and Germany have experimented with thorium fuel over the past fifty years. 

Thorium (Th-232) is not fissile on its own, and so is not directly usable in thermal neutron reactors - in this regard it is very similar to Uranium-238. However, it is 'fertile' and upon absorbing a neutron will transmute to uranium-233 (U-233), which is an excellent fissile fuel material. Thorium fuel concepts therefore require that Th-232 is first irradiated in a reactor to provide the necessary neutron dosing. The U-233 that is produced can either be chemically separated from the parent thorium fuel and recycled into new fuel, or the U-233 may be usable 'in-situ' in the same fuel form.

The most common source of thorium is the rare earth phosphate mineral, monazite, which contains up to about 12% thorium phosphate, but only 6-7% on average. Monazite is found in igneous and other rocks but the richest concentrations are in placer deposits, concentrated by wave and current action with other heavy minerals. World monazite resources are estimated to be about 12 million tonnes, two-thirds of which are in heavy mineral sands deposits on the south and east coasts of India. There are substantial deposits in several other countries. Thorium recovery from monazite usually involves leaching with sodium hydroxide at 140oC followed by a complex process to precipitate pure ThO2.

Thorite (ThSiO4) is another common mineral. A large vein deposit of thorium and rare earth metals is to be found in Idaho. For Australian rare earths miners, thorium, at the present, time remain mainly a nuisance. Because of its intimate association with the rare earths and its mild radioactivity, rare-earths transport and extraction can become yet another focal point and issue for green pseudo-science and political activism for special interest groups. 

There are at least seven reactor types under development for the commercial utilisation of thorium fuel. The two most advanced concepts are the Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR) and the High Temperature Gas Cooled Reactor (HTGCR).

Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs) are very well suited for thorium fuels due to their physical and mechanical characteristics. They have an excellent neutron economy (their low parasitic neutron absorption means more neutrons can be absorbed by thorium to produce useful U-233). They have a slightly faster average fission neutron energy which favours conversion to U-233. Finally they have a flexible on-line refuelling capability. Furthermore, heavy water reactors (especially the Canadian Candu) are well established and have a widely-deployed commercial technology for which there is extensive licensing experience.

High-Temperature Gas-Cooled Reactors (H.T.G.C.) are well suited for thorium- based fuels in the form of robust coated particles of thorium mixed with plutonium or enriched uranium, coated with pyrolytic carbon and silicon carbide layers which retain fission gases. The fuel particles are embedded in a graphite matrix that is very stable at high temperatures. Such fuels can be irradiated for very long periods and thus deeply burn to exploit their original fissile charge. Thorium fuels can be designed for both 'pebble bed' and 'prismatic' HTR fuel varieties.

The other reactor types which may one day utilise thorium as fuel may ultimately prove uneconomic and are still speculative. They include molten salt systems, fast breeder reactors and accelerator driven reactors. We conclude this review by studying the reaction of the two countries to thorium's as yet untapped energy potential.

With huge resources of easily-accessible thorium and relatively little uranium, India has made utilisation of thorium for large-scale energy production a major goal in its nuclear power programme, utilising a three-stage concept:

1. Pressurised heavy water reactors (PHWRs) fuelled by natural uranium, plus light water reactors, producing plutonium.
2. Fast breeder reactors (FBRs) using plutonium-based fuel to breed U-233 from thorium. The blanket around the core will have uranium as well as thorium, so that further plutonium (particularly Pu-239) is produced as well as the U-233.
3. Advanced heavy water reactors (AHWRs) burn the U-233 and this plutonium with thorium, getting about 75% of their power from the thorium. The used fuel will then be reprocessed to recover fissile materials for recycling.

This Indian programme has moved from aiming to be sustained simply with thorium to one 'driven' with the addition of further fissile plutonium from the FBR fleet, to give greater efficiency. In 2009, despite the relaxation of trade restrictions on uranium, India reaffirmed its intention to proceed with developing the thorium cycle.

A 500 MWe prototype FBR under construction in Kalpakkam is designed to produce plutonium to enable AHWRs to breed U-233 from thorium. India is focusing and prioritising the construction and commissioning of its sodium-cooled fast reactor fleet in which it will breed the required plutonium. This will take another 15-20 years and so it will still be some time before India is using thorium energy to a significant extent.

A different attitude prevails in countries with a well established nuclear power programmes. As the society is more aware of its inherent safety, energy security and ability to offset greenhouse gas production in a cost-effective manner. These will proceed with caution into developing thorium systems. Consider the advice of the United Kingdom's National Nuclear Laboratory (NNL) published in 2010.

"NNL believes that the thorium fuel cycle does not currently have a role to play in the UK context, other than its potential application for plutonium management in medium to long term. Depending on the indigenous thorium reserves, thorium fuel is likely to have only a limited role internationally for some years ahead. The technology is innovative, although technically immature and currently not of interest to the utilities. Representing significant financial investment and risk without notable benefits. In many cases, the benefits of the thorium fuel cycle have been over-stated."

5.0 BARC’s ATOMIC REACTORS

1. Apsara: India's first atomic reactor was commissioned in 1957. One megawatt swimming pool type reactor produces radio isotopes. It is also the first atomic reactor in Asia.
2. Cirus: (Canada-lndia-Reactor) - Built in 1960, it was a 40 megawatt reactor. It was the second largest facility for production of radioisotopes in India. It was decommissioned on December 31, 2010.
3. Zerlina: (Zero Energy Reactor for Lattice Investigation and New Assemblies) - It was commissioned on January 4, 1961 and used for studies of uranium heavy water lattice.
4. Dhruva: Commissioned on August 15, 1984, this 100 megawatt reactor is a completely indigenous nuclear reactor with most advanced laboratories in the world. It is the largest source of radioisotopes in India.
5. Purnima-I: (Plutonium Reactor for Neutronic investigation in Multiplaying Assemblies) Commissioned on May 22, 1972, plutonium fuelled reactor, modified as Purnima-II that used uranium as fuel and it is being further modified as Purnima-lll.
6. Kamini: India's first fast breeder neutron reactor, it has been set up at Kalpakkam. Today India is the seventh country in the world and the first in developing nations to have mastered the fast breeder reactor technology.

6.0 NUCLEAR POWER IN INDIA

Nuclear power is the fourth-largest source of electricity in India after thermal, hydroelectric and renewable sources of electricity. As of 2015, India has 21 nuclear reactors in operation in six states, generating 5,780 MW while five other reactors are under construction and are expected to generate an additional 3,800 MW.

In October 2010, India drew up "an ambitious plan to reach a nuclear power capacity of 63,000 MW in 2032", but "populations around proposed Indian NPP sites have launched protests, raising questions about atomic energy as a clean and safe alternative to fossil fuels". There have been mass protests against the French-backed 9900 MW Jaitapur Nuclear Power Project in Maharashtra and the 2000 MW Koodankuiam Nuclear Power Plant in Tamil Nadu. The state government of West Bengal state has also refused permission to a proposed 6000 MW facility near the town of Haripur that intended to host six Russian reactors. A Public Interest Litigation (PIL) has also been filed against the government's civil nuclear program at the Supreme Court.

Despite these impediments the capacity factor of Indian reactors was at 79% in the year 2011-12 as against 71% in 2010-11. Nine out of Twenty Indian reactors recorded an unprecedented 97% Capacity factor during 2Q11-12. With the imported Uranium from France, the 220 MW Kakrapar 2 PHWR reactors recorded 99% capacity factor during 2011-12. The Availability factor for the year 2011-12 was at 89%.

India has been making advances in the field of thorium-based fuels, working to design and develop a prototype for an atomic reactor using thorium and low-enriched uranium, a key part of India's three stage nuclear power programme.

6.1 Foreign investment in India’s nuclear sector 

India's civilian nuclear programme, largely indigenous for many years, is now being beckoned by foreign investment. The objective is to set up 'nuclear parks' supplied by foreign companies and operated - for now - by the Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL), a government-owned company. These parks are planned to have installed generated capacity of 8,000-10,000 MW at a single site. As the greatest installed capacity at one site is currently only 1,400 MW (Tarapur Atomic Power Station in Maharashtra, with four reactors).

Russian company Atomstroyexport, a government subsidiary, has reached a deal to build sixteen nuclear reactors in India. One of these units, of 1000 MW, is currently under construction in Kundankulam, Tamil Nadu, though are not yet operational. 

French company AREVA NP (a joint venture between AREVA and Seimens) has agreed to construct six 1650 MW reactors in Jaitapur, Maharastra. The European pressurized reactors, an untested type of reactor, will have a collective capacity of 9900 MW, making the Jaitapur nuclear power plant the largest in the world.

Private US companies GE-Hitachi Nuclear Energy and Westinghouse Electric have been given sites at Kovada in Andhra Pradesh and Mithivirdi in Gujarat, respectively. 

7.0 THE COMMAND AND CONTROL SYSTEM FOR NUCLEAR WEAPONS

7.1 Nuclear Command Authority (NCA)

The government announced the formation of NCA in Jan 2003, which will be solely responsible for ordering a nuclear strike. The NCA will have bodies Political Council and Executive Council.

Political Council is the sole body, which can authorize the use of-nuclear weapons. It represents the civilian leadership. As the first among equal, the Prime Minister will symbolically have his finger on the nuclear button. Besides the Prime Minister, as the chair person, the political council will also be represented by the Home Minister, the Defense Minister, the Foreign Minister and the Finance Minister.

Executive Council chaired by the National Security Adviser to the Prime Minister, will provide inputs for decision making by the National Command Authority and executive the directives given to it by the Political Council.

The Cabinet Committee also approved the appointment of a "Commander- in -chief, Strategic Forces Command" who would be responsible for the administration of the nuclear forces. It will be the custodian of all nuclear weapons and delivery systems. It will also formulate the strategy for realization and advice the chiefs of staff committee and actually fire the nukes. A senior officer of the Indian Air Force is executive council. The final decision has to be made by the leader (Prime Minister) in his individual capacity, base on military advice, especially when one is going to act only in retaliation.

7.2 Strategic Force Command (SFC) 

It functions below the executive council. It exercises overall operational control over the nuclear forces. The command is rotational among three services - Air Force, Army and Navy. It is headed by a commander-in-Chief approved by the cabinet, who will report to the Chairman of Chief of staff committee. Air marshal T.M. Asthana was the 1st Commander-in-Chief of SFC.

The SFC has also been empowered to formulate the strategy for nuclear retaliation and advise the chiefs of staff committee. The SFC also seeks transfer of some of the strategic squadrons of IAF including Mirage 2000, deep penetration strike aircraft jaguars and the Su-30 MKI. These nuclear delivery capable aircraft form the aerial arm of the country's proposed land, sea and air nuclear triad.

8.0 WORLD ASSOCIATION OF NUCLEAR OPERATORS (WANO)

It is a NGO established in 1989 at London after the Chernobyl nuclear accident. In this nuclear scientists from 33 countries are represented including that of India. The main function of WANO is in the domain of safety of reactor operations. It certifies the safety aspects of nuclear reactors that are open to its inspection. 

8.1 Large Hadron Collider - LHC

The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) is the world's largest and most powerful particle accelerator. It first started up on 10 September 2008, and remains the latest addition to CERN's accelerator complex. The LHC consists of a 27-kilometre ring of superconducting magnets with a number of accelerating structures to boost the energy of the particles along the way.

Inside the accelerator, two high-energy particle beams travel at close to the speed of light before they are made to collide. The beams travel in opposite directions in separate beam pipes - two tubes kept at ultrahigh vacuum. They are guided around the accelerator ring by a strong magnetic field maintained by superconducting electromagnets. The electromagnets are built from coils of special electric cable that operates in a superconducting state, efficiently conducting electricity without resistance or loss of energy. This requires chilling the magnets to 271.3°C - a temperature colder than outer space. For this reason, much of the accelerator is connected to a distribution system of liquid helium, which cools the magnets, as well as to other supply services.

Thousands of magnets of different varieties and sizes are used to direct the beams around the accelerator. These include 1232 dipole magnets 15 metres in length which bend the beams, and 392 quadrupole magnets, each 5-7 metres long, which focus the beams. Just prior to collision, another type of magnet is used to "squeeze" the particles closer together to increase the chances of collisions. The particles are so tiny that the task of making them collide is akin to firing two needles 10 kilometres apart with such precision that they meet halfway.

All the controls for the accelerator, its services and technical infrastructure are housed under one roof at the CERN Control Centre. From here, the beams inside the LHC are made to collide at four locations around the accelerator ring, corresponding to the positions of four particle detectors - ATLAS, CMS, ALICE and LHCb.

9.0 THE FUTURE OF NUCLEAR POWER IN INDIA

The development of nuclear power in India is driven as much by fantasy and romance as by scientific and strategic calculations. Like its foreign policy, planning and scientific temperament, Pandit Nehru bequeathed nuclear policy to India, on which there has always been a national consensus. Homi Bhabha is a national hero and his tragic death in an air crash is considered part of a possible conspiracy against India. Extreme secrecy surrounds nuclear policy and programs in a country, which is brutally open about other matters of national importance. Even when prophecies and projections are proved wrong and official actions become inexplicable, no system exists to explain the unforeseen developments, which may have altered the course. Sanctity is attributed to policies formulated and projects launched many years ago and course correction, even when it is made, is projected as business as usual. Much has happened in the nuclear arena, but India is, by and large, committed to its nuclear future.

Indeed, the policies of every government that has come to power in India and the popular sentiment in India have coincided in favour of nuclear power being an important part of the energy mix for the foreseeable future. In fact, the global trend against nuclear power has presented opportunities for India in terms of prices and availability of nuclear plant and material. But the nuclear power scene in India cannot but be influenced by new scientific research on nuclear power, including its costs and dangers, as well as on availability of safe and efficient alternatives.

All said and done, India must choose the course that is best for its long term interests, irrespective of what any world power may think about it.

10.0 THE INDO-US NUCLEAR DEAL

Nuclear power capacity addition in India is expected to get a boost after India and the US arrived at an agreement to operationalise the civil nuclear deal in January 2015.

The U.S.-India Civil Nuclear Agreement or Indo-US nuclear deal also known as the 123 agreement was signed between the United States and India in 2008. The framework for this agreement was laid out in 2005. It took more than three years for the deal to be struck because it had to pass through several complex stages, including amendment of U.S. domestic law, especially the Atomic Energy Act of 1954, a civil-military nuclear Separation Plan in India, an India-IAEA safeguards (inspections) agreement and the grant of an exemption for India by the Nuclear Suppliers Group, an export-control cartel that had been formed mainly in response to India's first nuclear test in 1974. However controversy soon erupted over the liability of suppliers of nuclear reactors in the event of an accident and the tracking of fuel supplied by the US and other countries for its proposed nuclear plants. During the American President Barack Obama's visit to India in 2015, the impasse was broken. However details as to how the points of disagreement have been solved are not available. Several major Indian suppliers, based on their interpretation of Section 17 (b) of the Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage (CLND) Act had the apprehension that each one of them, irrespective of the value of the supplies made by them and the contracted product liability period, will have to set aside a sum equal to the maximum amount of liability (Rs 1,500 crore each) till the end of life of the nuclear plant (for which they made a supply) plus, may be, at least two decades more. The US is also believed to insisting on tracking fuel supplies, even from third countries, to the reactors their suppliers will be building in India. New Delhi is said to be opposing such a condition as being intrusive and would subject itself only to International Atomic Energy Agency safeguards. On the insurance liability clause, India has been telling the US that it will build a pool that will indemnify American reactor builders against liability in case of an accident. 

To meet India's growing energy demands, nuclear power is a better option, but in India, uranium is not available in abundance which makes imports from other nations mandatory. Therefore, International treaties are needed to lift the ban on its import. The civil nuclear deal is in the interest of the country since it will help enhance the country's nuclear energy capabilities and meet the nation's growing energy demands. The Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) has set for itself a target of reaching 63,000 MWe of nuclear installed capacity by the year 2032.  It could well be translated into 68,000 MWe by 2040.  We expect that by then reactors with international civil nuclear cooperation, amounting to approximately 40,000 MWe installed capacity would be commissioned.  We envisage, providing a major part of the target to be met through these contributions, with additional construction of indigenous reactors, including Light Water Reactors of Indian design. 

11.0 THE INDIA-SRI LANKA CIVILIAN NUCLEAR DEAL

India and Sri Lanka signed a civilian nuclear deal in February 2015 during the Sri Lankan President Maithripala Sirisena's visit to India. The agreement on Cooperation in "Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy" would facilitate cooperation in transfer and exchange of knowledge and expertise, sharing of resources, capacity building and training of personnel in peaceful uses of nuclear energy including use of radioisotopes, nuclear safety, radiation safety, nuclear security, radioactive waste management and nuclear and radiological disaster mitigation and environmental protection. Ratan Kumar Sinha, secretary, Department of Atomic Energy, and Patali Champika Ranawaka, Minister of Power and Energy, signed the agreement on behalf of India and Sri Lanka respectively. Under this agreement India will help Sri Lanka in building its nuclear energy infrastructure, including training of personnel. This process will be expanded subsequently when India can sell light small-scale nuclear reactors to Sri Lanka. The agreement is an initial one and would not lead to the construction of nuclear energy reactors immediately.

This deal has remarkable geo-political implications in the Indian sub-continent.  It is being seen as a huge blow to China, which signed up a $1.5 billion deal with the previous Rajapaksa government for developing a seaport close to the commercial port in Colombo. The Sirisena government has not shelved the project outright yet but has embroiled it in bureaucratic processes by referring it for environmental clearance. In spite of options like China, Russia and even Pakistan which have a fairly large nuclear set up the Sri Lankan government opted to chose India.  India had successfully managed to preempt all such options. This deal is being seen as a major diplomatic victory for India and has also drawn praise for the President of United States. Mr. Sirisena and Prime Minister Narendra Modi witnessed the signing of three agreements on agricultural cooperation, a memorandum of understanding on Nalanda University and an agreement on cultural cooperation. 

LATEST 2020 UPDATE

• India will have 12 more nuclear power stations shortly to improve the power situation and ensure free flow of uninterrupted power supply for both Industries and residential usage, as per KN Vyas, secretary, Dept of Atomic Energy and Chairman, Atomic Energy Commission. These observations were made at the International AtomExpo at Sochi in Russia, in April, 2019.
• Nuclear Technology helps in betterment of lives through varied usages and is an irreplaceable source of clean, pollution-free energy. The founder of Indian nuclear programme, Homi J Bhabha had envisaged that nuclear technology is going to be very essential and not just in the power sector but for other societal uses intended for betterment of life.
• India believed that when it comes to clean energy, definitely, there is no substitute to nuclear energy as it is sustainable, and without interruption. The recent record run of Kaiga Nuclear Power station, a small unit of indigenously-developed 220-250MW reactor that completed 962 days of uninterrupted run at about 99.3% of capacity proved it.
• The first stage of India’s indigenous nuclear power programme has now attained maturity with 18 operating Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs).
• The Eleventh International Forum Atomexpo 2019 was officially opened in Sochi with the motto of this year being ‘Nuclear for better life’. More than 3,600 participants from 74 countries participated in the Expo. The new countries represented at the forum were Qatar, Bahrain and Nicaragua.
• Peaceful Atom is associated with all aims and goals of the UN Sustainable Development Program.
• Russian President Vladimir Putin applauded AtomExpo in advancing the stature of Russia in the field of nuclear technology. 
• Indian Nuclear Industry has got a lease of life following the sanction of the Centre for construction of 10 PHWRs in fleet mode. Alongside this, plans are afoot for the construction of two light water reactors.
• Indian industries have also gained a lot through the process. Nuclear energy and instruments requires a guided and systematic way of manufacturing and quality assurance. This raises the standard of industry participating in the manufacturing of equipments.
• Nuclear power plants not only benefit manufacturing in India, but also improve the local economy surrounding the areas where these reactors are located.

POKHARAN-II NUCLEAR TESTS BY INDIA, 1998 

• Pokhran-II by India, 1998 : It was a series of five nuclear bomb test explosions conducted by India at the Indian Army’s Pokhran Test Range in May 1998. The first test (code-named Smiling Buddha) was conducted in May 1974 by Indira Gandhi government.
• Details : Pokhran-II consisted of five detonations, of which the first was a fusion bomb and the remaining four were fission bombs. These tests resulted in a variety of prohibition sanctions against India by Japan, US etc. These were anticipated.
• Operation Shakti : On 11th May 1998, Operation Shakti (Pokhran-II) was initiated with the detonation of one fusion and two fission bombs –”Shakti” meaning “power” in Sanskrit. Later, on 13th May 1998, two additional fission devices were detonated, and the Indian government (PM Atal Bihari Vajpayee) declared India a full-fledged nuclear state.
• Action post 1974 : Responding to Smiling Buddha, the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) affected India’s nuclear program, as the world’s major nuclear powers imposed technological embargo on India and Pakistan both. India’s nuclear program struggled for years to gain traction. India had a lack of indigenous resources and was dependent on imported technology. Successive governments in India decided to observe this temporary moratorium for fear of inviting international criticism. 
• PVN Rao and Atal : The Indian public was supportive towards the nuclear tests which ultimately led Prime Minister Narasimha Rao deciding to conduct further tests in 1995. But plans were halted after American spy satellites picked up signs for nuclear testing at Pokhran Test Range (Rajasthan) and President Bill Clinton exerted pressure on the PM to stop it. 
• Pokharan II : Extensive planning was done by a very small group of scientists, senior military officers and senior politicians to ensure secrecy. The chief scientific adviser and the Director of Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO), Dr.Abdul Kalam, and Dr. R. Chidambaram, the Director of the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE), were the coordinators.
• National Technology Day : The Indian government has officially declared the 11 May as National Technology Day in India to commemorate the first of the five nuclear tests that were carried out on 11 May 1998. It was officially signed by then-Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee in 1998 and the day is celebrated by giving awards to various individuals and industries in S&T.

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