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Islamic architecture in India
1.0 Introduction
The arrival of the Turks in India led to a new technique of architecture which was inspired by the architectural styles of Persia, Arabia and Central Asia. The special engineering features of these buildings were the domes, arches and minarets. These were blended with the features of the indigenous architecture and a new synthesis in architecture was achieved. The main reason for this was that the Turkish rulers of Delhi utilized the services of the local Indian craftsmen who were very skillful and had already constructed beautiful buildings. In the buildings that came up we find the simplicity of the Islamic structure as well as the detailed sculptures and designs they made on their own indigenious structures. A middle path was followed in all their designs in the architecture of this period.
2.0 Delhi Sultanate
2.1.1 The Arch and Dome method
The dome was an important decorative structure in Islamic buildings, and soon was implemented in other structures as well. The pointed or true arch that was introduced during this period, was completely different from the type of arches that were being constructed within the country earlier. The earlier Indian style of creating arches was to first put up two pillars. The pillars would then be cut at intervals accommodate 'plug in' projections. There would be a sequence of squares that would gradually decrease in size creating an arch. The new artisans introduced the true arch. This was achieved by making the middle stone a key stone and to have the other stones distribute the load of on the two pillars.
The concept of the dome was also introduced. This was gradually perfected and one of the most stunning examples is the dome on top of the Taj Mahal. The dome initially started out as a conical dome as we see in the Mehrauli region in Delhi and eventually developed the ultimate bulbous onion shape on the Taj Mahal. The dome effect was achieved by an interesting method. A square base was first constructed and then at varying angles more of these squares were added to the base. This eventually create a rough dome effect.
This was plastered to make it completely round and then the squares were removed. The use of concrete was also on the increase, opening up new avenues. Concrete enabled builders to build larger structures covering more area. Local Indian craftsmen were soon trained in Persian styles of art which they used to decorate the structures. They also implemented some of their own ideas, and soon traditional Hindu motifs like the lotus found their way into Islamic buildings. There were other instances as well, for instance although the Islamic buildings used the more advanced pointed arch, they also included for decoration purposes a variant of the Hindu arch.
The use of arch and dome had a number of advantages. The arch and dome dispenses with the need of for a larger number of pillars to support the roof and enabled the construction of large halls with a clear view. The dome also provided a pleasing skyline.
2.1.2 Slab and beam method
This method consisted of putting over the other, narrowing the gap till it could be covered by a caping stone or putting a beam over it. This is known as the slab and beam method.
2.1.3 Decoration
In the sphere of decoration, the Turks did not represent human and animal figures in the buildings. Instead, they used geometrical and floral designs, combining them with panels of inscriptions containing verses from the Quran. Thus, the Arabic script itself became a work of art. The combination of these decorative devices was called Arabesque. They also freely borrowed Hindu motifs such as the bell motif, swastika, lotus, etc. They also added color to their buildings by using red sand stone, yellow sand stone and marble.
2.2 Some monuments and buildings of this period
The most magnificent building constructed by the Turks in the thirteenth century was the Qutab Minar. This tapering tower, originally 71.4 metre high, build by Iltutmish, was dedicated to the Sufi saint, Qutab-ud-Din Bakhtiyar Kaki, who was greatly venerated by all the people of Delhi. Although traditions of building towers are to be found both in India and West Asia, the Qutab Minar is unique in many ways.
The Khilji period saw a lot of building activity. Alauddin built his capital at Siri, a few kilometers away from the site around the Qutab. Ala-ud-din Khalji enlarged the Quwat-ul-Islam mosque and built a gateway to the enclosure of the mosque. This gateway is called the Alahi Darwaja and is one of the most beautiful architectural designs even today. Decorative elements were used to make the building outstanding in its beauty. It also contains a dome which, for the first time was built on correct scientific lines. Thus, the art of building the arch and the dome on scientific lines had been mastered by the Indian craftsmen by this time.
Ghiyasuddin and Muhammad Tughlaq built the huge place-fortress complex called Tughlaqabad. By blocking the passage of the Jamuna, a huge artificial lake was created around it. The tomb of Ghiyasuddin marks a new trend in architecture. To have a good skyline, the building was put upon a high platform. Its beauty was heightened by a marble dome
A striking feature of the Tughlaq architecture was the sloping, walls. This is called batter and gives the effect of strength and solidity to the building. However, we do not find any batter in the buildings of Firuz Tughlaq. A second feature of the Tughlaq architecture was the deliberate attempt to combine the principles of the arch, and the lintel and beam in their buildings. This is found in a marked manner in the buildings of Firuz Tughlaq. In the Hauz Khas, which was a pleasure resort and had a huge lake around it, alternate stories have arches, and the lintel and beam. The same is to be found in some buildings of Firuz Shah's new fort which is now called the Kotla. The Tughlaqs did not generally use the costly red sandstone in their buildings but the cheaper and more easily available grey stone.
3.0 ARCHITECTURE DURING SAYYID AND LODI DYNASTY
Lodhi Sultans carried further the tradition of mixture of Tughlaq and Turkish Style of Architecture. In their buildings arches and beams both are used and also the balconies, caves and mandaps in the Rajasthani and Gujarati styles. Lodhi Sultans used a new style as well, e.g., construction of tombs on a raised platform so that they can appear to be lofty and huge.
3.1 Tombs and sculptures
Architecture during the Sayyid Dynasty and Lodhi dynasty were a class apart and defined the quality of art and craft that prevailed during that period. The construction of Islamic architecture during the Tughlaq dynasty was relaxed under the Sayyid and Lodhi rule due to the inheritance of greatly weakened state treasury. Their desire for architectural constructions were projected in small tombs and mausoleum built throughout Delhi. The pattern of architecture during Sayyid and Lodhi dynasty was therefore restricted to tombs and sculpture only. However, a new form of Islamic architecture was developed which was later followed by the Mughals. Sayyids and Lodis constructed the tombs in two different forms; one pattern was based on octagonal plan surrounded by arched walkway with one storey in height and the other one was based on square plan without walkway with two or three storey in height. In both the cases, the building had a dome with pillars on each side of the octagonal and the square variety. An important feature of the architecture during Sayyid and Lodi dynasty is the amazing measurements of height and width to match with the structure of the basements. The height and width of each octagonal face is thirty feet, including the basement. The ornamental pinnacles or guldasta is present at the corners. This measurement is also half the total height of the building including the finial. Each octagonal face contains three arched openings divided by pillars. The central opening of the octagonal face is slightly broader than the two other openings. The tomb chamber inside is octagonal in plan along with an "arch and beam" opening in each face. The square type tomb structure and also the octagonal type tomb structure mark the pattern of architecture during Sayyid and Lodi dynasty.
3.2 Some examples of this period
The architectures during Sayyid and Lodi dynasty made smaller influence to the cities where they ruled. Whatever they constructed mirrored the broken spirit of the rulers of both the dynasties. No famous building arts, capital cities, imperial palaces and fortresses were created during their regime at Delhi. They were also not credited for any mosques or colleges. During the entire regime of the Sayyid and Lodhi, they constructed several monuments as memorials to the dead. This architectural period during Sayyid and Lodhi dynasty was known as the period of the macabre (word probably derived from ‘maqbara’ or the cemetery in Arabic). A large number of tombs were constructed around the capital. The three royal tombs of Mubarak Sayyid, Muhammed Sayyid and Sikandar Lodi reflect the prototype of architecture during Sayyid and Lodhi dynasty. Apart from these, other famous architectures of Sayyid and Lodi dynasties in the Delhi neighbourhood are Bara Khan ka Gumbad, Chota Khan Ka Gumbad, Shish Gumbad, Bara Gumbad, Tomb of Shihab-ud-din Taj Khan, Poli ka Gumbad and Dadi ka Gumbad.
The next architectural development of Sayyid and Lodi dynasty was the tomb of Sikandar Lodi, built in A.D. 1517. It reproduced the design of the tomb of Mohammed Sayyid.
Apart from all the three tombs of the rulers of the Sayyid and Lodi dynasty, most of the other tombs are isolated structures, without any surrounding wall, and if they were originally contained walls, these have since disappeared. Moreover away from the capital, several other architectures of the Sayyid and Lodi dynasty in same pattern are present in the towns of Kalpi in Bundelkhand and Lalitpur in the Jhansi district. The tomb present in Kalpi is known locally as the Chaurasi Gumbad, popular for its Eighty-four Domes. This Islamic architecture is believed to be a tomb of one of the Lodi kings. The tomb present in Lalitpur is popular as Jama masjid.
The character and treatment of the monuments and tombs and the over all pattern of architecture during Sayyid and Lodi dynasty indicate the fact that Delhi and its surrounding area during that time attained a separate style of expressiveness through the etching, cutting and structuring of the stones which was later redefined by the Mughals.
4.0 ARCHITECTURE DURING THE MUGHALS
4.1 Chief Characteristics
- Combination of the Persian elements of grandeur and originality with the grace and decoration of Indian or Hindu architecture.
- Uniformity in the architectural character and structural principles all over the empire.
- Construction of mausoleums in the centre of large park like enclosures and on high platforms.
- Construction of a double dome, the outer and the inner one, the latter forming the vaulted ceiling of the mortuary chamber underneath.
- Other features like the cupolas at the corner standing on slender pillars, magnificent palace halls and the lofty vaulted gateway
Mughal Art reached its zenith during this time. The architecture of Mughal style started during Akbar's rule.
4.2 Fort building
The first Mughal ruler to undertake the construction of forts on a large scale was Akbar. He constructed a series of forts, the most important being Agra Fort, built in red sandstone. His other forts are at Lahore and Allahabad. The Bulund Darwaza reflects the grandeur of the mighty Mughal empire. This building was made following Akbar's victory over
Gujarat. The Arch of the Buland Darwaja is about 41m high and is perhaps the most imposing gateway in the world. The tomb of Salim Chishti, Palace of Jodha Bai, IbadatKhana, Birbal's House and other buildings at Fatehpur Sikri reflect a synthesis of Persian and Indian elements. Indeed, the crowning achievements of his reign was the building of his new capital city of Fatehpur Sikri, 40 km from Agra. Fatehpur Sikri is a romance of stones.
4.3 Palace building
During Akbar's reign a palace-cum-fort was built at Fatehpur Sikri. Here many of the buildings were in the style of Gujarat and Bengal. Gujarat style buildings were for his Rajput wives. The Persian influence can be seen in the glazed blue tiles. Most magnificent building in it is the mosque (Jami Masjid) and its gateway (Buland Darwaza) which stands 176 feet in height. Other important buildings at Fatehpur Sikri are Jodha Bai's palace (influence of Hindu style), palaces of Mariam and Sultana. Birbal's house. Diwan-i-Am and Diwan-i-khas, and Panch Mahal (a paramedical structure in Five storeys which shows influence of Buddhist vihara)
4.4 Buidling of Mausoleums
During Akbar's reign, Humayun's tomb at Delhi was the first Mughal tomb to be placed in the centre of a large park like enclosure and it also marked the beginning of the use of white marble by the Mughals. The tomb of Saliim Chisti at Fatehpur Sikri was also built during Akbar's reign. Akbar's tomb at Sikandarabad near Agra was started by Akbar himself, but completed by his son, Jahangir. Influence of the Buddhist vihara could be seen in it.
Tomb of Itimad-ud-daula at Agra, built by Nur Jahan for her father, was constructed wholly of white marble with pietra-dura. This was the beginning of the practice of putting up buildings entirely of marble, and a new method of decoration, viz. pietra-dura (decoration of walls with floral designs made of semiprecious stones).
During Shah Jahan's reign large scale use was made of pietra dura in his buildings, especially Taj Mahal, which is considered as the jewel of a builder's art and which portrayed all Mughal architectural features. It was built at the cost of Rs. 50 lakhs at that time, supposedly by Ustad Isa.
4.5 Building of Masjids
During Babur's reign four mosques, one each at Sambhal, Panipat (in Kabul Bagh), Agra (old fort) and Ayodhya were built. Jami Masjid at Fatehpur Sikri built during Akbar's reign is one of the most magnificent buildings. Shah Jahan's reign saw the climax in architecture as seen Moti Masjid at Agra (built entirely in white marble) and Jama Masjid at Delhi (built in red sand stone). The Mughal architectural traditions were continued into the 18th and early 19th centuries. Their influence in provincial and regional kingdoms is clearly visible. Many features of Mughal tradition can be seen in the Golden Temple at Amritsar.
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