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The Second battle of Panipat and Akbar - Part 3
9.0 ATTEMPTS AT RELIGIOUS INTEGRATION
One of the first actions which Akbar took, after he had taken power in his own hands, was to abolish the poll tax or jizyah which the non-Muslims were required to pay in a Muslim state. Although it was not a heavy tax, it was disliked because it made a distinction between subject and subject. At the same time, Akbar abolished the pilgrim tax, on bathing at holy places such as Prayag, Banaras, etc. He also abolished the practice of forcibly converting prisoners of war to Islam. This laid the essential foundation of an Empire based on equal rights to all citizens, irrespective of their religious beliefs.
The liberal principles of the Empire were strengthened by bringing able Hindus into the nobility. While most of these were Rajput rajas, many of whom entered into matrimonial relations with Akbar, and with whom he had established a personal relationship, mansabs were given to others also on the basis of their competence. Among the latter, the ablest and the most well-known were Todar Mal, an expert in revenue affairs, who rose to the post of diwan, and Birbal, who was a favourite of the emperor.
Akbar's attitude towards his Hindu subjects is closely linked with his views of how a sovereign should behave towards his subjects. These views which have been carefully explained by Akbar's biographer, Abul Fazl, were an amalgam of Timurid, Persian and Indian ideas of sovereignty. According to Abul Fazl, the office of a true ruler was a very responsible one which depended on divine illumination (farr-i-izadi). Hence no one could stand between God and a true ruler. A true ruler was distinguished by a paternal love towards his subjects without distinction of sector creed, a large heart so that the wishes of great and small are attended to, prayer and devotion and a daily increasing trust in God who is considered as the real ruler. It was also the duty of the ruler to maintain equilibrium in society by not allowing people of one rank or profession to interfere in the duties and obligations of another. Above all he was not to allow the dust of sectarian strife to rise. All these together constituted what has been called the policy of sulh-kul or 'peace to all'.
9.1 Interest in religion and philosophy
From the beginning, Akbar was deeply interested in religions and philosophy. At the outset, Akbar was an orthodox Muslim. He paid great deference to the leading gazi of the state, Abdun Nabi Khan, who held the post of sadr-us-sadur and, on one occasion, even carried his slippers for him. But by the time Akbar reached adulthood, mysticism. which was being preached in the length and breadth of the country, began to influence him. We are told that he spent whole nights in thoughts of God, continually pronounced his name, and for a feeling of thankfulness for his success, he would sit many a morning alone in prayer and contemplation on a large flat stone of an old building near his palace in Agra. Gradually, he turned away from the path of narrow orthodoxy. He had already abolished the jizyah and pilgrim tax. He gathered at the court a band of talented people with liberal ideas. The most noted among these were Abul Fazl and his brother Faizi who along with their father who was a noted scholar, had been persecuted by the mullahs for having sympathy with Mahdawi ideas. Another was a brahmana, Mahesh Das, who was given the title of Raja Birbal, and was a constant companion of Akbar.
9.2 Religious debates
In 1575, Akbar built a hall called Ibadat Khana or the Hall of prayer at his new capital, Fatehpur Sikri. To this he called selected theologians, mystics and those of his courtiers and nobles who were known for their scholarship and intellectual attainments. Akbar discussed religious and spiritual topics with them. He frequently said, "My sole object, oh wise mullahs, is to ascertain truth, to find out and disclose the principles of genuine religion.... " The proceedings, at first, were confined to the Muslims. They were hardly orderly.
The mullahs wrangled, shouted, and abused each other even in the presence of the emperor. The behaviour of the mullahs, their pride and conceit in their learning disgusted Akbar, and further alienated him from the mullahs.
Later, Akbar opened the Ibadat Khana to people of all religions - Christians, Zoroastrians, Hindus, Jains; even atheists. This broadened the discussions, and debates began even on issues on which all Muslims were agreed, such as whether the Quran was the last revealed book and Muhammad its prophet, resurrection, nature of God. This horrified the theologians, and all kinds of rumours began to circulate about Akbar's desire to forsake Islam. As a modern writer says, "The patience and open-mindedness of Akbar was construed in a variety of way by persons of different faiths. Instead of bringing credit, the Ibadat Khana brought growing discredit."
At this time, an enquiry was conducted into the affairs of the Chief Sadr, Abdun Nabi, who was found to be extremely corrupt and tyrannical in his dealings in the distribution of charitable lands (madad-i-mash). He had amassed wealth in other corrupt and mean ways as well. He was a bigot and had inflicted the punishment of death on the Shias; and on a brahmana of Mathura for their beliefs. At first, Abdun Nabi was sheared of his power, and sadrs were appointed in every province for distributing charitable lands. Soon he was dismissed and ordered to proceed to Mecca for haj. At about the same time, in 1579-80, a rebellion broke out in the east. A number of fatwas were given by the qazis, declaring Akbar to be a heretic. Akbar suppressed the rebellion and gave drastic punishment to the qazis.
9.3 Conflict with theologians
To further strengthen his position in dealing with the mullahs, Akbar also issued a Declaration or mahzar which asserted that if there were conflicting views among those who were considered fit to interpret the Quran, that is mujtahids, Akbar, by virtue of being "a most just and wise king", and his rank being higher in the eyes of God than of the mujtahids, was entitled to choose anyone of the interpretations, which would be of "benefit to the nation and in the interests of good order." Further, if Akbar issued a new order "in conformity with the Quran and calculated to benefit the nation", all should be bound by it.
The Declaration which was signed by the leading ulamas has been wrongly called a "Decree of Infallibility". Akbar claimed the right to choose only when there was a difference of opinion among those qualified to interpret the Quran. At a time when there were bloody conflicts between the Shias, the Sunnis and the Mahdawis in different parts of the country, Akbar wanted the widest toleration. There is little doubt that the mahzar had a salutary effect in stabilising the religious situation in the Empire.
9.4 Limited success in integration
But Akbar was less successful in his effort to find a meeting ground between the votaries of different religions in the country. The debates in the Ibadat Khana had not led to a better understanding between different religions, but to greater bitterness, as the representatives of each religion denounced the others and tried to prove that their religion was superior to others. Hence, in 1582, Akbar discontinued the debates in the Ibadat Khana. But he did not give up his quest for truth. Even his bitter critic, Badayuni, says: "Night and day people did nothing but inquire and investigate." Akbar invited Purushottam and Devi to expound the doctrines of Hinduism, and Maharji Rana to explain the doctrines of Zoroastrianism. He met some Portuguese priests and in order to understand the Christian doctrines better, he sent an embassy to Goa, requesting them to send two learned missionaries to his court. The Portuguese sent Aquaviva and Monserrate who remained at Akbar's court for almost three years and have left a valuable account. But their hope of converting Akbar to Christianity never had any basis. They had hoped that most of India will fall under the Christian fold if they could just convert this one ruler - Akbar. But that, of course, was not to be! Akbar came into touch with the Jains also and, at his instance, the leading Jain saint of Kathiawar, Hira Vijaya Suri, spent a couple of years at Akbar's court.
Contacts with leaders of various religions, reading of their learned works, meetings with the Sufi saints and yogis gradually convinced Akbar that while there were differences of sect and creed, all religions had a number of good points which were obscured in the heat of controversy. He felt that if the good points of various religions were emphasised, an atmosphere of harmony and amity would prevail which would be for the good of the country. Further, he felt that behind all the multiplicity of names and forms, there was but one God. As Badayuni observed, as a result of all the influences which were brought to bear on His Majesty, "there grew gradually as the outline of a stone, the conviction in his heart that there were some sensible men in all religions. If some true knowledge was thus everywhere to be found, why should truth be confined to one religion?" This was a very revolutionary period in a sense, as no ruler before Akbar had realised this.
9.5 A new order
Badayuni asserts that as a result, Akbar gradually turned away from Islam and set up a new religion which was compounded of many existing religions - Hinduism, Christianity, Zoroastrianism, etc. However, modern historians are not inclined to accept this view, and think that Badayuni has exaggerated. There is little evidence to prove that Akbar intended or actually promulgated a new religion. The word used by Abul Fazl and Badayuni for the so-called new path was tauhid-i-Ilahi which literally means "Divine Monotheism". The word din or faith was not applied to it till 80 years later. The tauhid-i-Ilahi was really an order of the Sufistic type. Those who were willing to join and those whom the emperor approved were allowed to become members. Sunday was fixed as the day for initiation. The novice would place his head at the feet of the emperor who would raise him up, and give him the formula, called shast in the Sufi language, which he was to repeat and concentrate upon.
This contained Akbar's favourite motto "Allah-o-Akbar" or God is great. The initiates were to abstain from meat as far as possible, at least in the month of their birth, give a sumptuous feast and give alms on their birthday. There were no sacred books or scriptures, no priestly class, no place of worship or rituals and ceremonies, except the initiation. Badayuni says that the members had four grades of devotion, viz., sacrifice of property, life, honour and religion. These, again, were like the grades a Sufi passed. Giving up religion, apparently meant giving up attachment to the narrow concepts and observances which, again, was in keeping with Sufi ideas. Akbar did not use force nor was money used for making disciples. In fact, many leading nobles, including all the great Hindu nobles except Birbal, declined to join.
The number of persons who actually joined the order was small, many of them consisting of personal favourites of Akbar. Thus, the order was not expected to play an important political role. In any case, by the time the order was instituted, Akbar had consolidated his internal position, and such an artificial prop was hardly necessary. What, then, were Akbar's motives? Historians have different views in the matter. Badayuni ascribed it to Akbar's head being turned by many unworthy flatterers and panegyrists who suggested to him that he was the insan-i-kamil or the "Perfect Man" of the age. It was at their instance that Akbar initiated the ceremony of pabos or kissing the floor before the sovereign, a ceremony which was previously reserved for God. There were many precedents of rulers combining temporal and spiritual powers in their person. Abul Fazl says that it was natural for people to turn to their ruler for spiritual guidance and that Akbar was well qualified to lead the people to spiritual bliss and to establish harmony among warring creeds.
Whatever may have been Akbar's motives, the Tauhid-i-Ilahi virtually died with him. The practice of giving a shast to the initiates was continued for some time by Jahangir also. But soon it was discontinued. However, the habit of looking upon the king as someone having miraculous powers, so that people could be cured by the king's touch, or by his breathing upon a pot of water, continued, and even a strict ruler such as Aurangzeb could not shake off this belief.
Akbar tried to emphasise the concept of sulh-i-kul or peace and harmony among religions in other ways as well. He set up a big translation department for translating works in Sanskrit, Arabic, Greek, etc., into Persian. Thus, the Singhasan Battisi, the Atharva Veda and the Bible were taken up first for translation. These were followed by the Mahabharata, the Gita and the Ramayana. Many others, including the Panchatantra and works of geography, were also translated. The Quran was also translated, perhaps for the first time.
10.0 Akbar's Architectural Legacy
The following monuments were constructed by Akbar
- Humayun's Tomb, Delhi (1560s)
- Arab Sarai, Delhi (1560s)
- Khair-ul Manazil Masjid, Delhi (1561)
- Adham Khan's Tomb, Delhi (c. 1562)
- Dargah of Nizam-ud-din, Delhi (1562)
- Ataga Khan's Tomb, Delhi (1566)
- Afsarwala Mosque and Tomb, Delhi (1566)
- Agra Fort, including Amar Singh Gate and Jehangiri Mahal, Agra (1565-70)
- Ajmer Fort and Pavilion, Ajmer (1570-2)
- Lahore Fort and Palace, Lahore
- Jama Masjid, Fatehpur Sikri (1571)
- Shaikh Salim Chishti's Tomb, Fatehpur Sikri (1571-80)
- Islam Khan's Tomb, Fatehpur Sikri
- Palace, Fatehpur Sikri (1571-85)
- Buland Darwaza, Fatehpur Sikri (1575-6)
- Allahabad Fort and Palace, Allahabad (1583)
- Muhammad Ghaus's Tomb, Gwalior
- Hari Parbat Fort, Srinagar (1586)
- Nasim Bagh, Srinagar
- Babar's Tomb, Delhi (1590)
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