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The early Chalukyas (Badami)
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The Chalukya Dynasty was an ancient Indian dynasty which flourished in the southern and the central parts of India between the time-frame of 600 AD and 1200 AD. They reigned over the Deccan Plateau [Deccan comes from the Sanskrit word dakshina meaning "the south"] in southern India. They controlled this region for over 600 years, between the sixth and twelfth centuries. This empire ruled as three close but separate dynasties. The earliest dynasty, the Badami Chalukya or early Western Chalukya Dynasty ruled from its capital of Vatapi (modern day Badami, in the state of Karnataka) from 543 to 757 CE. The Eastern Chalukya or Vengi Chalukya had their capital in Vengi (near present day Eluru in the state of Andhra Pradesh) from 626 to 1070 CE. The later Western Chalukya or Kalyani Chalukya ruled from the city of Kalyani (modern day Basavakalyan in the state of Karnataka) from 975 to 1189 CE. At the close of the Kalyani Chalukya Dynasty, their reign extended from the state of Gujarat in the north to the Kaveria Basin in the south Later, the Chalukyas managed to reiterate their powers and established their rule once again during the 10th century AD and this rule then lasted till 12th century AD.
2.0 ORIGINS OF THE CHALUKYAS
Many theories exist amongst academicians and historians regarding origins of the Chalukyas. Dr. D.C. Sircar believes the origin of the Chalukyas dates back to an indigenous Kannada family, coming from the state of Karnataka in the southern part of India, who had obtained the status of kshatriyas (the nobility caste in Hindu society). This theory is thought to be accurate since the Chalukyan kings wanted the Kannada [one of the oldest and well known Dravidian languages spoken in southern India] dialect to be used in both their language and literature. Inscriptions found throughout the Chalukya temples are written in Kannada, as well as in Sanskrit [ancient Indian language used in the sacred writings of the Vedas]. Professor N. Laxminarayana Rao notes that some of the names of the Chalukya princes end in a typical Kannada regal suffix, arasa (king or chief) .
However, Dr. A. F. Rudolf Hoernle, an Indologist, believes their language is of a non-Sanskrit origin, as Chalukya is derived from a Turkish root, chap (to gallop). The family name Chalukya is spelt in their ancient records [inscriptions have been found recorded on rocks, caves, pillars, temples, images, walls, slabs, and tablets] in various ways, such as, Chalkya, Chalikya, and Chalukya.
Sircar believes the original name of their ancestors was Chalka, whereas Nilakanta Sastri suggests Chalkya was the original form and was later embellished to Chalukya.
The Chalukya Dynasty can be broadly classified into three individual yet related dynasties. These are:
- Western Chalukyas
- Later Western Chalukyas
- Eastern Chalukyas
3.0 POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE WESTERN CHALUKYAS
The earliest of the three Chalukya Dynasties was the dynasty of the Western Chalukyas. They are sometimes also referred as the Badami Chalukyas. Their rule was established in the middle of the 6th century AD and they ruled from the city of Vatapi (modern Badami). These Western Chalukyas established themselves an independent kingdom after the downfall of the Kadambas of Banavasi and then started their struggle for supremacy over the Pallavas of Kanchi in the Tungabhadra-Krishna doab region of the peninsular India.
Pulakesin-I: Although the Chalukyas ruled successfully between the 535 and 566 AD under the governance of Jayasimha and his son Ranaraga but the real Chalukya Dynasty is believed to have been founded by the Palakesin-I. He was the first to establish a rule at Badami (now Bijapur) which later became the epicenter of the Western Chalukya Dynasty.
Kritivirman-I: Kritivirman-I was the son of Pulakesin-I and succeeded his reign. He is known to have defeated the rulers of Anga, Vattura, Magadha, Kalinga and Vanga. Under his rule, the kingdom of the Western Chalukya Dynasty was spread to a large area embracing Mysore, Tamil Nadu and parts of southern Maharashtra. Kritiviram-I is also remembered for his construction of several buildings and temples in the city of Vatapi.
Mangalesa: The kingdom of the Western Chalukyas was handed to Mangalesa after Kritiviram-I in 598 AD. He was Kritiviram-I's brother. Under his rule, the kingdom expanded to the next level and whole of the Maratha country was brought under the rule of the Western Chalukyas. Though he is known as a magnanimous ruler but he could not avoid a war with his own nephew Pulakesi-II and lost his life in the war.
Pulakesi-II: Pulakesi-II was the most famous of all Chalukyan rulers. He snatched the kingdom from his uncle, Mangalesa, by raising a war against him. He handled the helm of the Western Chalukyas for about thirty-two years between 610 and 642 AD. Under his rule, the empire was further expanded and the Gangas of south Mysore and the Mauryas of Konkan lost their territories to the Chalukyas. He transformed the small Chalukyan kingdom into an extensive empire. His many victories in battle enhanced his prestige and made him the absolute sovereign of southern India. He followed a technique of conquering and then dominate bordering empires that enabled him superiority over his enemies. The rulers of neighboring kingdoms (Kosala and Kalinga) were so terrified of Pulakesin II that they immediately surrendered to him, instead of battling his armies. His expansions brought him in close proximity of the Pallava Emperor Harsha who waged a war against him in 637 AD but was defeated. Later, Pulakesi-II attacked the Pallava king Mahendra Varman-I and defeated him. However after this victory, he could not hold the second Pallava invasion and lost his life along with the Chalukyan capital, Vatapi, to the Pallava ruler Narasimhava in this war. The Aihole Prasasti (634 CE) written by Ravikirit, a Jain court poet, gives a detailed account of Pulakesin's many military accomplishments
Vikramaditya-I: After the death of Pulakesi-II, the Chalukyan throne remained vacant till 655 AD when Vikramaditya-I managed to take control over the Chalukyan territories and suppressed the dominance of the Pallavas in the Deccan peninsular regions of India permanently.
Vinayditya: Vinayditya was handed the helm of Chalukyan Empire in 681 AD and he ruled successfully till 696 AD. Unlike Pallava-II, his relations with the Cholas and the Pandyas were not pleasant and in his reign he carried some campaigns against them. After he defeated the Lord of entire Uttarapatha, he was given the title, Palidhvaja.
Vijayaditya: He was the immediate successor of the Vikramaditya and ruled between 696 and 733 AD. There are no historical evidences of any conquest made by him and it is believed that most of the period under his rule was peaceful.
Vikramaditya-II: He was the son of Vijayditya and ruled the Western Chalukya Dynasty between 734 and 745 AD. He is known to have defeated the last Pallava king. After this victory, he is known to have taken the possession of the musical instruments, elephants, rubies and banners which belonged to the Pallavas. Also, it is believed that along with the Pallavas, Vikramaditya-II also suppressed the powers of the Pandyas and the Cholas.
Kritivarman-II: He was the last ruler of the Western Chalukyan Dynasty and ruled successfully after his father, Vikramaditya-II, for about eleven years. Later he lost his empire to the Rashtrakutas and all his attempts to regain control over his territories were futile. The Rashtrakutas ruled the territories for about next two centuries after which the control was regained by the Later Western Chalukyas of Kalyani.
4.0 TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE OF THE EARLY CHALUKYAS
Brahmanical Hinduism was the official religion throughout the Chalukya Dynasty. Yajna (sacrificial fire rituals) received special attention during this period, as well as, vrata (religious vows performed, such as fasting or mantra repetition) and dana (the generous giving of gifts). The Badami Chalukyas were Brahmanical Hindus, but respected other faiths too. Great importance came to be attached to Vedic sacrifices and rituals. In fact, Pulakesin I, the founder of the dynasty, is said to have performed the asvamedha sacrifice. Quite a few Brahmanical treatises were also composed during this period. Apart from the orthodox form of Brahmanism, Puranic religion also grew popular under the Chalukyas. It was, in fact, this popularity that gave momentum to the building of temples in honour of Vishnu, Shiva and other gods.
Rock cut cave temples and elaborate structural temples were erected throughout the state of Karnataka, testifying to the Chalukyan kings' great faith in Hinduism. The ritual sovereignty meant that a king was believed to have divine, sacred powers that were established through his Brahmanical legitimization in the temple, therefore large temple complexes were built as centres for the regional kingdoms. Each of these ancient temples was dedicated to one of the major deities, such as, Shiva or Vishnu. Both Shaivism (worshipping of the god Shiva) and Vaishnavism (worshipping of the god Visnu) flourished during the Chalukya period.
Today, throughout the state of Karnataka hundreds of temple structures still dot the landscape. Temples play an important role in Hinduism as these structures are scared dwellings where spiritual knowledge is obtained. Hindu temples are centres where the boundaries between man and the divine can be explored. The temple is the heart of the intellectual and artistic life of the Hindu community, serving as a holy place of worship, but also as the focal point where all artistic activities are established.
Badami, Aihole, and Pattadakal are considered the earliest group of the ancient temple complexes; today, Badami is still regarded as a place of pilgrimage. These early monuments were built to showcase the king's outstanding power and skill, as well as the region's courage and strength. In Pulakein's I fortress of Vatapi (Badami) there are three beautiful rock cut cave temples that have been carved out of the side of a sandstone cliff. The Chalukya sculptors were among the greatest creators of Hindu iconography and many of the Hindu gods were depicted in stone for the first time.
The three cave temples are of the Hindu faith and contain many mythological sculptures, exquisite carvings, beautiful murals, and inscriptions describing in detail the achievements of the Chalukya kings. Cave One was carved in 578 CE and is dedicated to Shiva, featuring a sculpture of an eighteen-armed Shiva as Nataraja (The Lord of Dance) and also Harihara (half Shiva and half Visnu). Cave Two is dedicated to Vishnu where he is depicted in various avatars (incarnations). [Vishnu is the defender of the world and the restorer of dharma (righteous order) and his ten avatars appear on earth when there is chaos.] Cave Three, also called The Great Cave, is almost twenty-two metres wide, and is dedicated to Vishnu. This cave contains a sculpture of Vishnu seated on the body of the great snake Ananta. Vishnu is also represented in the cave as Chatturbhuj (four armed) holding a shankha (conch shell), a saranga (bow), a padma (lotus), and a chakra (discus) in his four hands with Garuda (the king of birds) as his vahana (vehicle).
The Chalukya Dynasty started a new style of architecture called Vesara (to blend, or a mixture) that was used primarily in the construction of their temples.
The Vesara style contains elements found in both Dravida (pyramid shaped temples of southern India) and Nagara (beehive-shaped and multi-layered tower temples of northern India) architecture. An example of Vesara architecture can be found in Pattadakal at the Virupaksha Temple that has been functioning uninterrupted since its completion. The temple was constructed by Queen Lokamahedevi to commemorate King Vikramditya II’s (733-747 CE) victory over the Pallava rulers. Inside the temple are carvings of Shiva, whom the temple is dedicated to, as well as elaborate carved scenes from the Hindu epics Ramayana and the Mahabharata.
5.0 LITERATURE
The Chalukyan kings supported and promoted knowledge and higher education for all their subjects. They encouraged the development and growth of the Kannada literature which reached great heights under the Chalukyan rulers. During the ninth century, Durgasimba (a Brahman scholar, foreign minister under Jayasimba II) wrote the Panchatantra (Five Principles), translations from the tales of Baital Pachisi that had first appeared in the Indian epic Brihatkatha of Gunadhya. Pampa, Ponna, and Ranna were called Ratna-Traya (the three gems) of Kannada literature, as they contributed greatly to the advancement of Kannada literature.
Pampa, considered the Father of Kannada Poetry, was called the adi (first) kavi (poem or poet) and wrote the Vikramarjuna-vijaya (Victory of the Mighty Arjuna), a narrative of the epic Mahabharata, with Arjuna as the hero. Ponna (939-968 CE) wrote both in Sanskrit and in Kannada, and was given the title of ubhaya-kavi-chakravarti (imperial poet of two languages).
The Aihole inscription of Pulakesi II (634) written by his court poet Ravikirti in Sanskrit language and Kannada script is considered as an classical piece of poetry. A few verses of a poetess named Vijayanaka who describes herself as the "dark Sarasvati" have been preserved. It is possible that she may have been a queen of prince Chandraditya (a son of Pulakesi II). Famous writers in Sanskrit from the Western Chalukya period are Vijnaneshwara who achieved fame by writing Mitakshara, a book on Hindu law, and King Somesvara III, a noted scholar, who compiled an encyclopedia of all arts and sciences called Manasollasa
In 950 CE, Ponna wrote Ramakatha, a secular epic based on the Ramayana adventure. Ranna authored the Gadayuddha [which is considered one of the greatest works of Kannada literature] an epic describing the Chalukya rulers' fight for power and control of the surrounding land around Karnataka. Ranna received the title kavi-chakravarti (emperor of poets) from King Tailapa for his masterful writings.
Also, furthering the progression of Kannada literature was Nagavarma I, a Jain poet and author of Chandombudhi (Ocean of Prosody) (990 CE), which is an early study of poetic metres. Nagavarma I also wrote Karnataka Kadambari that explains the concept of the chandalas (untouchables) in the Hindu caste system. Basava (1106-1167 CE), a philosopher and humanitarian, introduced Vachana literature to convey high philosophical ideas to the common man in simple language. In this example of a Vachana by Basava, the message of the poem states the fact that even a poor individual can contribute to temple building.
Those who have means will not devote them to the building of a temple to God Shiva. Then I, though a poor man, will build Thee one, O Lord. My legs shall be the pillars, my body the shrine, my head the golden finial. Hearken, O Kudala Sangamadeva! [important temple for pilgrimages] The fixed temple of stone will come to an end; but this movable temple of the spirit will never perish.
Brahmasiva, being a court poet of Western Chalukya was well versed in the Vedic scriptures, the Puranas (ancient Hindu religious texts) and the religious texts of Saivism. Brahmasiva wrote the Samayapariksa, the first satirical work in the history of Kannada literature, which criticizes other religious faiths and in 1100 CE he received the title kavi-chakravarti with honours from Chalukya King Traialokyamalla. The Hindu legal system owes much to the Sanskrit work Mitakshara by Vijnaneshwara in the court of Western Chalukya King Vikramaditya VI. Perhaps the greatest work in legal literature, Mitakshara is a commentary on Yajnavalkya and is a treatise on law based on earlier writings and has found acceptance in most parts of India. Englishman Henry Thomas Colebrooke later translated into English the section on inheritance, giving it currency in the British Indian court system.
6.0 THE CHALUKYA PALLAVA CONFLICT
Towards the closing stages of 500 AD, Simha Vishnu undertook the possession of the province, and became the founder of the Pallava dynasty. He fought numerous wars and the realm enjoyed the opulence. Subsequent to his demise, his son Mahendravarman ascended him to the throne. He was a learned man; commenced the work of cave temple at Mahabalipuram.
Pulakesi II, the most prominent early Chalukya king, learnt about the riches of Kanchi and attacked the kingdom to defeat Mahendravarma. He came with a huge army and overpowered Mahendravarman at Pullalur in 620 A.D. Thus, he had whitewashed Mahendravarman and seized diverse northern Pallava provinces. It was an immense offense to the Pallavas and Mahendravarman in particular. The entire episode took a toll on the emperors health. His further attempts to take vengeance in a sequence of battles with Pulikesin in the northern part of Tamilnadu were in vain. 630 AD marked the demise of Mahendravarman, as he died a broken man with the insult.
His son Narasimhavarman was a man of tact and intelligence. Narasimhavarman rose to the throne in 630 A.D, and promised to retribute the offense committed onto his father by the Chalukyas. He married the Pandya princess Vanama Devi and later began his invasion towards Vatapi. He led his army along with his general Paranjothi and occupied Vatapi, effectively conquering and killing Pulakesi II in 642, in the Battle of Manimangalam and Pariyalam. He completely burnt the capital city of Pulakesi.
He retrned back to Kanchipuram as a triumphant monarch, and was entitled Vatapikondan (one who destroyed Vatapi). He earned the title "Mamalla" to his acclaim, and perhaps this could be the reason why Mahabalipuram is called Mamallapuram. Badami continued under his authority until 655 AD till Vinayaditya restored it back to the Chalukya realm. Thandi Varman (775 - 825) was a Pallava monarch who ruled in South India. He was the son of Nandivarman II.
Pallavas issued copper coins at Badami, depicting the imperial emblem "Bull to right" on the obverse and "Lotus" symbol on the reverse.
7.0 RELIGION AND ADMINISTRATION
The Chalukya kings were followers of Hinduism. The caste system was present and devadasis were recognised by the government. Some kings had concubines (ganikas) who were given much respect, and Sati was perhaps absent since widows like Vinayavathi and Vijayanka are mentioned in records. Devadasis were however present in temples. Sage Bharata's Natyashastra, the precursor to Bharatanatyam, the classical dance of South India, was popular and is seen in many sculptures and is mentioned in inscriptions. Some women from the royal family enjoyed political power in administration. Queen Vijayanka was a noted Sanskrit poetess Kumkumadevi, the younger sister of Vijayaditya (and queen of Alupa King Chitravahana) made several grants and had a Jain basadi called Anesajjebasadi constructed at Puligere. The queens of Vikramaditya II, Lokamahadevi and Trailokyamahadevi made grants and possibly consecrated the Lokesvara Temple (now called Virupaksha temple) and the Mallikarjuna temple respectively at Pattadakal.
Both Shaivism and Vaishnavism flourished during the Badami Chalukya period, though it seems the former was more popular. Famous temples were built in places such as Pattadakal, Aihole and Mahakuta, and priests (archakas) were invited from northern India. Vedic sacrifices, religious vows (vrata) and the giving of gifts (dana) was important. The Badami kings were initially followers of Vedic Hindusim and dedicated temples to popular Hindu deities in Aihole. Sculptures of deities testify to the popularity of Hindu Gods such as Vishnu, Shiva, Kartikeya, Ganapathi, Shakti, Surya and Sapta Matrikas ("seven mothers"). The Badami kings also performed the Ashwamedha ("horse sacrifice").The worship of Lajja Gauri, a fertility goddess is known. Jainism too was a prominent religion during this period. Few of the chalukya kings were Jains. The kings of the dynasty were however secular and actively encouraged Jainism. One of the Badami Cave temples is dedicated to the Jain faith. Jain temples were also erected in the Aihole complex, the temple at Maguti being one such example. Ravikirti, the court poet of Pulakesi II was a Jain. Queen Vinayavati consecrated a temple for the Trimurti ("Hindu trinity") at Badami. Sculptures of the Trimurti, Harihara (half Vishnu, half Shiva) and Ardhanarishwara (half Shiva, half woman) provide ample evidence of their tolerance. Buddhism was on a decline, having made its ingress into Southeast Asia. This is confirmed by the writings of Hiuen-Tsiang. Badami, Aihole, Kurtukoti and Puligere (modern Lakshmeshwar in the Gadag district) were primary places of learning. It was during the Western Chalukya rule that the Bhakti movement gained momentum in South India, in the form of Ramanujacharya and Basavanna, later spreading into northern India.
The Chalukyan army was well organised and this was the reason for Pulakesi II's success beyond the Vindhyas. It consisted of an infantry, a cavalry, an elephant corps and a powerful navy. The Chinese traveller Hiuen-Tsiang wrote that the Chalukyan army had hundreds of elephants which were intoxicated with liquor prior to battle. It was with their navy that they conquered Revatidvipa (Goa), and Puri on east coast of India. Rashtrakuta inscriptions use the term Karnatabala when referring to the powerful Chalukya armies.
The government, at higher levels, was closely modelled after the Magadhan and Satavahana administrative machinery. The empire was divided into Maharashtrakas (provinces), then into smaller Rashtrakas (Mandala), Vishaya (district), Bhoga (group of 10 villages) which is similar to the Dasagrama unit used by the Kadambas. At the lower levels of administration, the Kadamba style prevailed fully. The Sanjan plates of Vikramaditya I even mentions a land unit called Dasagrama. In addition to imperial provinces, there were autonomous regions ruled by feudatories such as the Alupas, the Gangas, the Banas and the Sendrakas. Local assemblies and guilds looked after local issues. Groups of mahajanas (learned brahmins) looked after agraharas (called ghatika or "place of higher learning") such as at Badami which was served by 2000 mahajans and Aihole which was served by 500 mahajanas. Taxes were levied and were called the herjunka - tax on loads, the kirukula - tax on retail goods in transit, the bilkode - sales tax, the pannaya - betel tax, siddaya - land tax and the vaddaravula - tax levied to support royalty.
The Badami Chalukyas minted coins that were of a different standard compared to the coins of the northern kingdoms. The coins had Nagari and Kannada legends. The coins of Mangalesa had the symbol of a temple on the obverse and a 'sceptre between lamps' or a temple on the reverse. Pulakesi II's coins had a caparisoned lion facing right on the obverse and a temple on the reverse. The coins weighed 4 grams and were called, in old-Kannada, hun (or honnu) and had fractions such as fana (or fanam) and the quarter fana (the modern day Kannada equivalent being hana - which literally means "money"). A gold coin called gadyana is mentioned in a record at the Vijayeshwara Temple at Pattadakal, which later came to be known as varaha (their royal emblem).
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