UPSC IAS exam preparation - Issues on Environmental Ecology - Lecture 8

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Conservation projects in India

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1.0 INTRODUCTION

The need for conservation of wildlife in India is often questioned because of the apparently incorrect priority in the face of direct poverty of the people. The logic is : if millions are hungry and poor, where’s the time to think of animal welfare?

However, Article 48 of the Constitution of India specifies that, "The state shall endeavour to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country" and Article 51-A states that "it shall be the duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers, and wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures." Thus, our constitution itself recognises this need.

Large and charismatic mammals are important for wildlife tourism in India, and several national parks and wildlife sanctuaries cater to these needs. They bring in the dollars, literally. (It is worthwhile to note that many African nations are totally dependent only on tourism revenues)

Wildlife includes all non-domesticated plants, animals, and other organisms. Domesticating wild plant and animal species for human benefit has occurred many times all over the planet, and has a major impact on the environment, both positive and negative. Wildlife can be found in all ecosystems, like Deserto, rain forests, plains, and other areas including the most developed urban sites all have distinct forms of wildlife. While the term in popular culture usually refers to animals that are untouched by human factors, most scientists agree that wildlife around the world is impacted by human activities.

2.0 Indian wildlife

The wildlife of India is a mix of species of diverse origins. The region's rich and diverse wildlife is preserved in numerous national parks and wildlife sanctuaries across the country. Since India is home to a number of rare and threatened animal species, wildlife management in the country is essential to preserve these species. Fortunately, successive governments have been very positive on it.

According to one study, India is home to about 60-70% of the world's biodiversity. India, lying within the Indomalaya ecozone, is home to about 7.6% of all mammalian, 12.6% of avian, 6.2% of reptilian, and 6.0% of flowering plant species. 

Many ecoregions, such as the shola forests, also exhibit extremely high rates of endemism; overall, 33% of Indian plant species are endemic. India's forest cover ranges from the tropical rainforest of the Andaman Islands, Western Ghats, and Northeast India to the coniferous forest of the Himalaya. Between these extremes lie the sal-dominated moist deciduous forest of eastern India; teak-dominated dry deciduous forest of central and southern India; and the babul dominated thorn forest of the central Deccan and western Gangetic plain. Important Indian trees include the medicinal neem, widely used in rural Indian herbal remedies. The pipal fig tree, shown prominently on many seals found at Mohenjo-daro, shaded the Gautama Buddha as he sought enlightenment.

Many Indian species are descendants of taxa originating in Gondwana, to which India originally belonged. Peninsular India's subsequent movement towards, and collision with, the Laurasian landmass set off a mass exchange of species. However, volcanism and climatic changes 20 million years ago caused the extinction of many endemic Indian forms. Soon thereafter, mammals entered India from Asia through two zoogeographical passes on either side of the emerging Himalaya. As a result, among Indian species, only 12.6% of mammals and 4.5% of birds are endemic, contrasting with 45.8% of reptiles and 55.8% of amphibians. Notable endemics are the Nilgiri leaf monkey and the brown and carmine Beddome's toad of the Western Ghats. India contains 172, or 2.9%, of IUCN-designated threatened species. These include the Asiatic lion, the Bengal tiger, and the Indian white-rumped vulture, which suffered a near-extinction from ingesting the carrion of diclofenac-treated cattle.

In recent decades, human encroachment has posed a threat to India's wildlife; in response, the system of national parks and protected areas, first established in 1935, was substantially expanded. In 1972, India enacted the Wildlife Protection Act and Project Tiger to safeguard crucial habitat; further federal (central) protections were promulgated in the 1980s. Along with over 500 wildlife sanctuaries, India now hosts 14 biosphere reserves, four of which are part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves; 25 wetlands are registered under the Ramsar Convention. The varied and rich wildlife of India has had a profound impact on the region's popular culture. Common name for wilderness in India is Jungle which was adopted by the British colonialists to the English language. The word has been also made famous in The Jungle Book by Rudyard Kipling. India's wildlife has been the subject of numerous other tales and fables such as the Panchatantra and the Jataka tales. 

The gradual emergence of the human beings as the most dominant species among all other species of animals and the attempt of the human beings to set themselves apart from other species is the main underlying cause of the contemporary environmental disaster. The reason behind a threat to the wildlife and the ecosystem is the constantly growing deforestation, poaching and negligence towards animals and nature. The Indian Government has started nature projects like, Project Tiger, Nature Camps, Jungle Lodges, etc. to encourage wildlife awareness among the common people. Besides preserving the natural heritage, these projects also promote eco-tourism. 

3.0 Conservation of Wildlife In India

The National Wildlife Action Plan provides the framework of the strategy as well as the programme for conservation of wildlife. The first National Wildlife Action Plan (NWAP) of 1983 has been revised and the new Wildlife Action Plan (2002-2016) has been adopted. The Indian Board of Wildlife, headed by the Prime Minister, is the apex advisory body overseeing and guiding the implementation of various schemes for wildlife conservation.

Project Tiger now renamed as the National Tiger Conservation Authority, was launched in 1973 with a mandate to conserve tigers in a holistic manner. Its mandate was to be fulfilled by facilitating focused, concerted management of eco-typical reserves in various states, constituted on a core-buffer strategy through funding the technical support including site-specific inputs to elicit local community support for conservation. The project has put the tiger on an assured course of recovery from the brink of extinction, apart from conserving the floral and faunal genetic diversity in some of our unique and endangered wilderness ecosystem.

Under the Project Elephant, which was launched in February 1992, States that have a free-ranging population of wild elephants are being given financial as well as technical and scientific assistance to ensure long-term survival of identified viable populations of elephants in their natural habitats. The Elephant Task Force Report, Gajah, lays out a comprehensive action agenda for protecting elephants in the wild and in captivity, and for addressing human-elephant conflict.

Established in 1982, Wildlife Institute of India (WII) offers training programmes, academic courses and advisory in wildlife research and management. The Institute is actively engaged in research across the breadth of the country on biodiversity related issues.

Animal Welfare Board of India (AWBI) is a statutory body under Section 4 of the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960 with its headquarters at Chennai. Its basic mandate is to advise the Government on animal welfare issues, and create awareness regarding animal welfare. AWBI gives financial assistance to the eligible Animal Welfare Organisations for Shelter Houses, Model Gaushalas, for setting up Bio-Gas Plants, Famine/Drought Relief, Earthquake Relief, etc., in the various states.

Zoological Survey of India is a nodal organization under Ministry of Environment and Forests which plays a significant role in fulfilling India's commitments under various international conventions. This organisation is a vast repository of National Zoological Collection in the form of various types and reference collections needed for the bio-systematic research and conservation strategies.

3.1 Various projects

Gir National Park in Gujarat is the only existent habitation for the nearly extinct Asiatic Lions in India. The Kaziranga Sanctuary in Assam is a major example of good effort to save the endangered Rhinoceros. Similarly, Periyar in Kerala is doing a great job to preserve the wild Elephants and Dachigam National Park is progressing rapidly to save the Kashmiri Stag. 

Wildlife Conservation in India occupies a total area of about 3.29 million sq. km. that contains floral and faunal species, mammals, reptiles, insects and birds. The Wildlife Conservation in India has become the most popular holiday destinations because of its diverseness. In India there are 571 sanctuaries and reserve parks that are protected by the Indian Government, mainly meant for the protection of the extinct species of animals and birds. Predators, carnivores and herbivores, - all are equally important to maintain the vital ecological processes as nutrient and water cycling. India has over 500 animal sanctuaries, referred to as Wildlife Sanctuaries (IUCN Category IV Protected Area). 

Among these, the 28 Tiger Reserves are governed by Project Tiger, and are of special significance in the conservation of the tiger. Some wildlife sanctuaries are specifically named Bird Sanctuary, eg. Keoladeo National Park before attained National Park status. 

Many National Parks were initially Wildlife Sanctuaries. Wildlife sanctuaries of national importance to conservation, usually due to some flagship faunal species, are named National Wildlife Sanctuary, like National Chambal (gharial) Wildlife Sanctuary for conserving the gharial (1978).

Some of the important wildlife sanctuaries in India are:

1. Bandhavgarh National Park in Madhya Pradesh 
2. Corbett National Park in Uttar Pradesh 
3. Gir National Park & Sanctuary in Gujarat 
4. Kanha National Park in Madhya Pradesh 
5. Kaziranga National Park in Assam 
6. Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary in Kerala 
7. Sariska Wildlife Sanctuary in Rajasthan 
8. Sunderbans National Park in West Bengal 
9. Dachigam National Park in Jammu & Kashmir 
10. Manas Tiger Reserve in Assam 

3.2 National Parks of India

India's first national park (an IUCN category II protected area) was established in 1935 as Hailey National Park, now known as Jim Corbett National Park. By 1970, India only had five national parks. In 1972, India enacted the Wildlife Protection Act and Project Tiger to safeguard the habitats of conservation reliant species. Further federal legislation strengthening protections for wildlife was introduced in the 1980s. As of April 2007, there are 96 national parks. All national park lands encompass a combined 38,029.18 km², 1.16% of India's total surface area. A total of 166 national parks have been authorized. Plans are underway to establish the remaining scheduled parks.

3.3 Biosphere Reserves

The term 'Biosphere Reserve' should denote an area:

1. Which is set aside for the conservation of the resources of the biosphere and for the improvement of the relationship between man and the environment;  and
2. Which is to serve as site(s) for long term scientific research as well as education all over the world. 

List of National Parks

1. Dibru-Saikhowa National Park - Assam
2. Desert National Park - Rajasthan
3. Dachigam National Park - Jammu and Kashmir
4. Corbett National Park - Uttarakhand
5. Chandoli National Park - Maharashtra
6. Campbell Bay National Park - Andaman and Nicobar
7. Anshi National Park - Karnataka
8. Balphakram National Park - Meghalaya
9. Bandhavgarh National Park - Madhya Pradesh
10. Bandipur National Park - Karnataka
11. Bannerghatta National Park - Karnataka
12. Vansda National Park - Gujarat
13. Betla National Park - Jharkhand
14. Bhitarkanika National Park - Orissa
15. Blackbuck National Park, Velavadar - Gujarat
16. Buxa Tiger Reserve - West Bengal
17. Fossil National Park - Madhya Pradesh
18. Great Himalayan National Park - Himachal Pradesh
19. Indira Gandhi National Park (Annamalai National Park) - Tamil Nadu
20. Dudhwa National Park - Uttar Pradesh
21. Intanki National Park - Nagaland
22. Guindy National Park - Tamil Nadu
23. Govind Pashu Vihar - Uttarakhand
24. Kaziranga National Park - Assam
25. Khangchendzonga National Park - Sikkim
26. Kishtwar National Park - Jammu and Kashmir
27. Van Vihar National Park - Madhya Pradesh
28. Kanha National Park - Madhya Pradesh
29. Mollem National Park - Goa
30. Mount Harriet National Park - Andaman and Nicobar

4.0 CONSERVATION OF BIOSPHERE

The programme of Biosphere Reserve was initiated under the 'Man & Biosphere' (MAB) programme by UNESCO in 1971. Biosphere Reserves are areas of terrestrial and coastal ecosystems promoting solutions to reconcile the conservation of biodiversity with its sustainable use. 

They are internationally recognized, nominated by National Governments and remain under sovereign jurisdiction of the states where they are located. Biosphere Reserves serve in some ways as 'living laboratories' for testing out and demonstrating integrated management of land, water and biodiversity (CES., UNESCO, 2005., IUCN, 1979). 

List of Biosphere Reserves

1. Achanakmar-Amarkanta - Madhya Pradesh & Chhattishgarh 
2. Agasthyamalai - Kerala 
3. Dehang-Debang - Arunachal Pradesh 
4. Dibru-Saikhowa - Assam
5. Great Nicobar - Andaman and Nicobar
6. Gulf of Mannar - Tamil Nadu
7. Khangchenjunga - Sikkim
8. Manas - Assam
9. Nanda Devi - Uttaranchal
10. Nilgiri - Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and Karnataka
11. Nokrek - Meghalaya
12. Pachmarhi - Madhya Pradesh
13. Simlipal - Orissa
14. Sunderbans - West Bengal

5.0 IUCN

The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) is an international organization dedicated to natural resource conservation.Founded in 1948, its headquarters is located in the Lake Geneva area in Gland, Switzerland. 

The IUCN brings together 83 states, 108 government agencies, 766 Non-governmental organizations and 81 international organizations and about 10,000 experts and scientists from countries around the world. IUCN's mission is to influence, encourage and assist societies throughout the world to conserve the integrity and diversity of nature and to ensure that any use of natural resources is equitable and ecologically sustainable. 

5.1 Biosphere Reserve objectives

Each Biosphere Reserve is intended to fulfill three basic functions, which are complementary and mutually reinforcing:

1. A conservation function - to contribute to the conservation of landscapes, ecosystems, species and genetic variation; 
2. A development function - to foster economic and human development which is socio-culturally and ecologically sustainable; and
3. A logistic function - to provide support for research, monitoring, education and information exchange related to local, national and global issues of conservation and development (UNESCO, 2005). 

The Indian government has established 15 Biosphere Reserves of India, (categories roughly corresponding to IUCN Category V Protected areas), which protect larger areas of natural habitat (than a National Park or Animal Sanctuary), and often include one or more National Parks and/or preserves, along buffer zones that are open to some economic uses. Protection is granted not only to the flora and fauna of the protected region, but also to the human communities who inhabit these regions, and their ways of life. Four of the fifteen biosphere reserves are a part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves, based on the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme list.

5.2 Rhino Indexing System

The Rhino DNA indexing system (RhODIS) is a DNA-based forensic tool. It is used to investigate and prosecute suspects in case of rhino poaching. The tool involves the collection of each individual rhino's unique DNA profile into a database which can be referenced when presenting legal evidence in cases of rhino poaching.

In India, the state of Assam is facing the threat of poaching of rhiceroses. Assam's Environment and Forest Minister has expresses interest in introducing  RhODIS in the State, where poachers often went unpunished for want of irrefutable evidence.  Poachers killed and dehorned 41 rhinos in Assam and about 1,000 rhinos in South Africa in 2013. South Africa had successfully cracked down on rhino poaching by international gangs and carried out effective prosecution. As many as 16 rhinos have been killed in Kaziranga so far this year.

The RhODIS would help provide concrete evidence before the trial court, as required for conviction in poaching cases . This would be valuable to the Assam government as it has been exploring the option of setting up fast-track courts to carry out speedy trials against poachers. The State has now planned to introduce RhoDIS in collaboration with World Wide Fund for Nature - India to build a database of the DNA profiles of translocated, poached or naturally-dead rhinos.

The Veterinary Genetics Laboratory at the Faculty of Veterinary Science of the University of Pretoria has over 5,000 rhino samples on its DNA database and has contributed towards over 400 probes in the east and southern African region.

Poaching had been posing a major threat to rhino conservation efforts. The Poachers had sought to tap the markets in china? Vietnam where the rhino horn is used for various purposes.

Fourteen poachers have been killed, six arrested and seven firearms seized so far this year. The rhino population in Assam is estimated to be 2,553. Of this, the KNP has 2,329, the Rajiv Gandhi Orang National Park 100 rhinos, the Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary 93 rhinos and Manas National Park 31 rhinos.

6.0 LAWS IN INDIA PERTAINING TO CONSERVATION

6.1 Wildlife Protection Act of 1972

It was enacted in 1972, by the Government of India. Prior to that, India only had five designated national parks. Among other reforms, the Act established schedules of protected plant and animal species; hunting or otherwise harvesting these species was largely outlawed. This Act surely rates as one of the most progressive steps taken by the-then government of Mrs Indira Gandhi.

The Act provides for the protection of Wild animals, birds and plants and for matters connected therewith or ancillary or incidental thereto. It extends to the whole of India, except the State of Jammu and Kashmir which has its own wildlife act. It has six schedules which give varying degrees of protection, with absolute protection being provided under Schedule I and Part II of Schedule II with the highest penalties prescribed for offences under these schedules. Species listed in the Schedule IV are also protected but the penalties are much lower, with the enforcement authorities having the power to compound offences (like - they impose fines on the offenders).

1. National Parks and Tiger Reserves are by law more strictly protected, allowing virtually no human activity except that which is in the interest of wildlife conservation.
2. Grazing and private tenurial rights are disallowed in National Parks but can be allowed in sanctuaries at the discretion of the Chief Wildlife Warden.
3. The amended WLPA does not allow for any commercial exploitation of forest produce in both national parks and wildlife sanctuaries, and local communities can collect forest produce only for their bona fide needs.
4. No wild mammal, bird, amphibian, reptile, fish, crustacean, insects, or coelenterates listed in four Schedules of the WLPA can be hunted either within or outside protected areas. On conviction, the penalty for hunting is imprisonment for a period ranging from a minimum of three to a maximum of seven years with fines not less than 10,000 rupees.
5. Community reserves and conservation reserves are two new categories of protected areas that have been included under the WLPA. These two categories provide a greater role for local communities, stakeholders and civil society as well as the opportunity to protect many areas of conservation value that cannot be designated under strict categories such as wildlife sanctuaries or national parks.
6. The statute prohibits the destruction or diversion of wildlife and its habitat by any method unless it is for improvement or better management and this is decided by the state government in consultation with the National and State Boards for Wildlife.
7. The WLPA contains elaborate procedures for dealing with legal rights in proposed protected areas and acquisition of any land or interest under this law is deemed as an acquisition for a public purpose. However, with the enactment of The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006, compliance of various provisions relating to tenurial and community rights must be ensured.
8. Apart from protected area establishment, other important aspects of the WLPA include procedures for the appointment of state wildlife authorities and wildlife boards, the regulation of trade in wildlife products and the prevention, detection and punishment of violations of the WLPA.
9. The 2006 amendment introduced a new chapter (IV B) for establishment of the National Tiger Conservation Authority and notification of Tiger Reserves (before this amendment, Tiger Reserves were not defined under the law, but were merely administrative designations to enable funding under Project Tiger).
10. The Wildlife Crime Control Bureau (WCCB) was constituted vide the 2006 amendment to monitor and control the illegal trade in wildlife products.
11. The WLPA provides for investigation and prosecution of offences in a court of law by authorized officers of the forest department and police officers.

6.2 The Indian Forest Act (1927) and Forest Acts of State Governments

The main objective of the Indian Forest Act (1927) was to secure exclusive state control over forests to meet the demand for timber.

The Act facilitates three categories of forests, namely 

1. Reserved forests, 
2. Village forests, and 
3. Protected forests.

Reserved forests are the most protected within these categories. No rights can be acquired in reserved forests except by succession or under a grant or contract with the government. Felling trees, grazing cattle, removing forest products, quarrying, fishing, and hunting are punishable with a fine or imprisonment.

6.3 The Forest Conservation Act (1980)

In order to check rapid deforestation due to forestlands being released by state governments for agriculture, industry and other development projects (allowed under the Indian Forest Act) the federal government enacted the Forest Conservation Act in 1980 with an amendment in 1988. The Act made the prior approval of the federal government necessary for de-reservation of reserved forests, logging and for use of forestland for non- forest purposes.

6.4 The Environment (Protection) Act (1986)

The Environment Protection Act is an important legislation that provides for coordination of activities of the various regulatory agencies, creation of authorities with adequate powers for environmental protection, regulation of the discharge of environmental pollutants, handling of hazardous substances, etc. The Act provided an opportunity to extend legal protection to non-forest habitats ('Ecologically Sensitive Areas') such as grasslands, wetlands and coastal zones.

6.5 The Biological Diversity Act (2002)

India is a party to the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity. The provisions of the Biological Diversity Act are in addition to and not in derogation of the provisions in any other law relating to forests or wildlife.

6.6 National Wildlife Action Plan (2002-2016)

National Wildlife Action Plan (2002-2016) replaces the earlier Plan adopted in 1983 and was introduced in response to the need for a change in priorities given the increased commercial use of natural resources, continued growth of human and livestock populations, and changes in consumption patterns.

The Plan most closely represents an actual policy on protection of wildlife. It focuses on strengthening and enhancing the protected area network, on the conservation of Endangered wildlife and their habitats, on controlling trade in wildlife products and on research, education, and training.

The Plan endorses two new protected area categories: "conservation reserves," referring to corridors connecting protected areas, and "community reserves", which will allow greater participation of local communities in protected area management through traditional or cultural conservation practices.

6.7 National Forest Policy (1998)

The National Forest Policy, 1988, (NFP) is primarily concerned with the sustainable use and conservation of forests, and further strengthens the Forest Conservation Act (1980). It marked a significant departure from earlier forest policies, which gave primacy to meeting government interests and industrial requirements for forest products at the expense of local subsistence requirements. The NFP prioritizes the maintenance of ecological balance through the conservation of biological diversity, soil and water management, increase of tree cover, efficient use of forest produce, substitution of wood, and ensuring peoples' involvement in achieving these objectives.

7.0 INTERNATIONAL TREATIES AND CONVENTION

At the international level, there have been a number of conventions, protocols, and treaties to control/regulate atmospheric pollution. Some of these are listed below:

1. Convention on International Trade in Endangered species of wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) or Washington convention: It is an international agreement that came into force on July 1,1975. Its aim is to ensure that international trade in wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival.
2. Vienna Convention for the Protection of ozone layer: It was agreed upon in 1985 at Vienna conference and came into force in 1988.
3. Sulphur Emissions Reduction Protocol: It is an international agreement calling for reductions in Sulphur emissions. It opened for signature in 1985 and came into force on September 2, 1987.
4. Antarctic Environmental Protocol or Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty is part of the Antarctic Treaty System providing for comprehensive protection of the Antarctic environment. It opened for signature in 1991 and came into force on January 14, 1998.
5. Basel Convention (Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal). It is an international treaty to reduce the movement of hazardous wastes between nations. It was opened for signature in 1989, and came into force on May 5, 1992.
6. ESPOO convention: It is an international agreement that regulates the assessment of environmental impact in the case of projects which has transboundary effects. The convention was adopted in 1991 and came into force on September 10, 1997.
7. Convention on Biological Diversity or Biodiversity Treaty: It is an international treaty to promote the conservation of biodiversity and to ensure sustainable use and equitable sharing of genetic resources. It was opened for signature in 1992 at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (the Rio "Earth Summit) and came into force on December 29, 1993.
8. Montreal Protocol (Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer): It is an international treaty (a protocol to the Vienna Convention) to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the use of various substances that are considered to be responsible for ozone depletion. The treaty was opened for signature in 1987 and came into force on January 1, 1989. Since then, it has undergone seven revisions (1990-London, 1991 -Nairobi, 1992-Copenhagen, 1993 - Bangkok, 1995 - Vienna, 1997 -Montreal, 1999 - Beijing). The United States of America, Canada, and Mexico jointly submitted their proposal recently (May 9, 2011) to phase-down production and consumption of hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) under the Montreal Protocol.
9. Nitrogen Oxide Protocol: It is an international treaty designed to control the emission of nitrogen oxide and their transboundary fluxes. The treaty opened for signature in 1988 and came into force on February 14, 1991.
10. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNCCC): It is an international treaty designed to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations to prevent dangerous effects on climate system. It opened for signature in 1992 and came into force on March 21, 1994.
11. Convention on Nuclear Safety: It is an international treaty to ensure maintenance of high level safety for the land-based nuclear power plants. It was adopted in June, 1994, and came into force on October 24,1996.
12. Kyoto Protocol: It is an update of the 1994 United Nations Framework convention on climate change aimed at fighting global warming. The protocol was adopted in 1997 and came into force on February 16,2005.
13. Rotterdam Convention: It is a multilateral United Nations treaty to ensure prior informed procedure for certain hazardous chemicals and pesticides in International trade. The treaty was signed in 1998 and came in force on February 24,2004.
14. Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants: It is an international environmental treaty aiming to eliminate or restrict the production and use of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) as they persist in the environment and bio-accumulate through food webs posing serious threat to human health. The treaty was adopted in 2001 and came into force on May 17,2004. There are 173 parties to the convention at present (April, 2011). The substances listed as POPs are aldrin, chlordane, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, hexachlorobenzene, mirex, toxaphene, PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls) DDT, dioxins (polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins), polychlorinated dibenzofurans.
15. POP Air Pollution Protocol: (Protocol to the 1979 Convention on Long Range Transboundary Air Pollution on Persistent Organic Pollutants). It is an international treaty to control emissions of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) to reduce their transboundary fluxes. It opened for signature in 1998 and came into force on October 23,2003.
16. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change: The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) came into force on March 21,1994. This international treaty set no mandatory limit on greenhouse gas emissions for individual countries and is, therefore, legally non-binding. However, it provided for updates, called protocols, which would set mandatory emission limits.

The UNFCCC is a section of the United Nations, concerned with operations of the convention, and has offices in Haus Carstanjen, Bonn, Germany. After it came into force in 1994, it holds annual conferences, called Conferences of the Parties (COP). The first conference was held in March, 1995, in Berlin, Germany, and the latest (17th) was held in Durban, South Africa from November 28 to December 9, 2011. The 16th conference was held at Cancun, Mexico, from November 29th to December 10, 2010.

The 1997 conference, COP3, was held in Kyoto, Japan, and is known as the Kyoto Protocol because it set green house gas emissions reduction obligations on industrialized countries along with mechanisms such as emissions trading, clean development mechanism, and joint implementation. Most countries agreed to legally binding reductions in greenhouse gas emissions on an average of 6 to 8% below 1990 levels between 2008-2012. 

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