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Depletion and conservation of natural resources
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Depletion of natural resources refers to the exhaustion of raw materials within a region. Resources are either renewable or non-renewable. Use of either of these resources beyond their rate of replacement is considered to be resource depletion. It is most commonly used in reference to the farming, fishing, mining and fossil fuels.
2.0 Fishing
2.1 Blast fishing or Dynamite fishing
It is the use of explosives to stun or kill schools of fish for easy collection. This illegal practice can be extremely detrimental to the surrounding ecosystem. It is so because the explosion often destroys the underlying habitat (eg. coral reefs) that supports the fish. Thus, it is akin to wreaking havoc in the seas.
This outlawed practice remains widespread in Tanzania and Indonesia, Aegean Sea and coastal Africa.
2.2 Bottom trawling
Benthic trawling is towing a net at the very bottom of the ocean and demersal trawling is towing a net just above the benthic zone. Bottom trawling targets both bottom living fish (groundfish) and semipelagic species such as cod, squid, shrimp and rock fish.
The overfishing in the North Sea and Grand Banks due to bottom trawling has caused huge ecological changes to the fish communities. It also stirs up the sediment at the bottom of the sea which decreases light levels at the bottom affecting kelp reproduction. Ocean sediments are the sink for many persistent organic pollutants.
2.3 Cyanide fishing
This involves spraying of sodium cyanide mixture into the desired fish's habitat so as to stun the fish. This practice hurts not only the target population, but also many other marine organisms.
2.4 Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated fishing (IUU)
Such fishing takes place in violation of the laws of a fishery. The most obvious economic impact of IUU fishing on developing countries is the direct loss of the values of the catches that could be taken by local fishermen if IUU fishing was not taking place.
Economic loss of illegal fishing is estimated to be between $10 billion to $23 billion annually.
2.5 Overfishing
Overfishing occurs when fishing activities reduce fish stocks below an acceptable level. Overfishing can lead to resource depletion, low biological growth rates and critical low biomass levels. For instance, overfishing of sharks has led to upset the entire marine ecosystems. Another example is Atlantic cod stocks severely overfished in 1970s and 1980s, leading to their abrupt collapse in 1992.
2.6 Shark finning
It refers to the removal and retention of shark fins while discarding the carcasses at sea. It is one of the causes for the rapid decline of global shark populations. The IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature) lists 39 species of elasmobranchs (sharks and rays) as critically endangered, endangered or vulnerable.
2.7 Whaling
Refers to hunting of whales mainly for meat and oil. In the late 1930s more than 50,000 whales were killed annually. Since the whale stocks were not replenished by the middle of 20th century, International Whaling Commission banned commercial whaling so that stocks might recover. The ban has been successful in averting the extinction of whale. In April 2014, the Japanese authorities were again severely reprimanded and reminded that they must immediately put an end to whaling in the guise of Research and Development, to which Japan has finally agreed.
3.0 Logging (the Felling, Skidding, On-site Processing and Loading of trees onto trucks)
3.1 Clearcutting, or clearfelling
Refers to logging practice in which most or all trees in a harvest areas are cut down. It may lead to deforestation, destroying natural habitats and contributing to climate change. The negative impacts of clearcutting are soil erosion, poor-quality regrowth, increased risks of pest epidemics, increased wild fires, loss of biodiversity, and loss of carbon contributing to global warming.
3.2 Deforestation
It is the removal of forest or stand of trees where the land is thereafter converted to nonforest use. The removal of trees without sufficient reforestation has resulted in damage to habitat, biodiversity loss and aridity. Deforested regions typically incur significant adverse soil erosion and often degrade into wasteland.
3.3 Illegal logging
Is the harvest, transportation, purchase or sale of timber in violation of laws. It causes enormous damage to forests, local communities and to the economies of producer countries.
4.0 IssueS related to Mining
Environmental issues that relate to mining include erosion, formation of sink-holes, loss of biodiversity, and contamination of soil, groundwater and surface water by chemicals from mining processes. Other than creating environmental damage, the contamination caused by leakage of chemicals also affects the health of local population. Ok Tedi Mine in Papua New Guinea is a prime example of erosion of exposed hillsides, mine dumps and resultant siltation of drainages, creeks and rivers impacting the surrounding areas. While mining may cause destruction and disturbance of ecosystems and habitats in areas of wilderness, it may destroy or disturb productive grazing and croplands in areas of farming. Mining may produce noise pollution, dust pollution and visual pollution in urbanised environments. { In India, the Supreme Court has adopted a stringent stand on illegal mining, citing provisions in Part IV of the Constitution (Directive Principles of State Policy) and it banned such operations in the states of Goa, Karnataka and Odisha. Only in April 2014 was a conditional relief was given to Goan miners. }
5.0 ANOXIC WATERS
These are areas of fresh water or sea water that are depleted of dissolved oxygen. This condition results from restricted water exchange. Anoxic basins that exist at present are: Bannock Basin in Mediterranean Sea; Black Sea Basin; Caspian Sea Basin; Cariaco Basin in Venezuela; Gotland Deep in the Baltic Sea; Manager Fjord in Denmark ; Orca Basin in the Gulf of Mexico and Saanich Inlet in Canada.
5.1 Causes and effects
Anoxic conditions result from stagnation conditions; density stratification, inputs of organic material and strong thermoclines. The bacterial production of sulphide starts in the sediments. The bacteria find suitable substrates and then expand into water column.
When oxygen is depleted in a basin, bacteria turn to the second best electron acceptor, nitrate, in the sea. Denitrification occurs and nitrate is consumed rapidly. The bacteria then turn to reducing sulphate. Sulphides are oxidized to sulphates following reoxygenation of the anoxic sea water.
In the Baltic Sea, the slowed rate of decomposition under anoxic conditions have left well preserved fossils.
5.2 Anoxic events
These take place when the Earth's oceans become completely depleted of oxygen below the surface levels. Anoxic events have not occurred for millions of years. There is geological evidence to suggest that anoxic events occurred many times in the past which caused mass extinctions. These events took place due to lapses in the main oceanic current circulations, climate warming and greenhouse gases and during periods of very warm climate with high levels of CO2 and mean surface temperatures exceeding 25°C. Oceanic anoxic events took place in the already warm Cretaceous and Jurassic Periods.
Earlier they occurred in late Triassic, Permian, Devonian, Ordovician and Cambrian Periods.
Two important consequences are related to ocean anoxic events - (i) These have been responsible for mass extinctions of marine organisms both in Paleozoic and Mesozoic, and (ii) Mesozoic oceans helped produce most of the world's petroleum and natural gas reserves. During such an anoxic event, the accumulation and preservation of organic matter was much greater than normal. This allowed the generation of potential petroleum source rocks across the globe.
5.3 Hypoxia
It is also referred to as oxygen depletion. It occurs in aquatic environments as dissolved oxygen (DO) i.e. oxygen dissolved in the water, reduces to a point where it becomes detrimental to the aquatic organisms living in the water body. An aquatic system lacking DO (0% saturation) is termed anaerobic, reducing or anoxic. DO is expressed as a percentage of oxygen that would dissolve in the water at the existing temperature and salinity. The medium is called hypoxic or dysoxic when DO is in the range between 1 & 30% saturation. Most fish cannot survive below 30% saturation. Ideally an aquatic environment should not have below 80% saturation DO. The zone found at the boundary between anoxic and hypoxic zones is called exaerobic.
Occurrence: Hypoxia occurs throughout the water column. It is observed at high altitudes as well as near sediments on the bottom. It usually occurs in 10 to 80% of the water column depending on the water depth and rapid changes in water density with depth.
Causes of hypoxia: Apart from natural factors, oxygen depletion is a consequence of pollution and eutrophication. Plant nutrients entering a river, lake or ocean during eutrophication, result in phytoplankton blooms. Through photosynthesis, phytoplankton raises DO saturation during the day. The dense population of a phytoplankton bloom reduces DO saturation during the night by respiration. With no support from DO, the phytoplankton cells die, sink towards the bottom and are later decomposed by bacteria. This further reduces DO in the water body. Fish and certain invertebrates like crabs and clams on the bottom are killed from hypoxic conditions.
5.4 Dead zones
These zones are basically hypoxic or low DO areas in the oceans. These occur near inhabited coastlines, where aquatic life is most concentrated. 146 dead zones were reported in the first Global Environment Outlook Year Book' in 2004, where marine life could not be supported due to depleted oxygen levels.
Causes: Aquatic and marine dead zones can be caused by an increase in chemical nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus in the water through eutrophication. It can lead to rapid increase in the density of varied phytoplankton culminating in algal bloom. As explained earlier in hypoxic conditions, algae produce oxygen in day time through photosynthesis. Conversely during the night they undergo cellular respiration to deplete the water body of available oxygen. When algal blooms die off, oxygen is further used up during bacterial decomposition of the dead algal cells. This results in a significant drop in DO in the water causing hypoxic conditions. Also, the use of chemical fertilizers is considered the most significant cause of formation of dead zones around the world. Discharge from sewage, urban land use, and fertilizers can also cause eutrophication.
Effects: Low oxygen levels recorded along the Gulf Coast of North America resulted in decreased size of reproductive organs, low egg counts and lack of spawning in fish. Also, fish raised in laboratory-created hypoxic conditions showed extremely low sex hormone concentrations.
6.0 CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES
Conservation biology is concerned with phenomena that affect the maintenance, loss and restoration of biodiversity and the science of sustaining evolutionary processes that produce genetic, population, species and ecosystem diversity. The concern arises from estimates suggesting that up to 50% of all species on the planet will disappear within the next fifty years. Apart from contributing to poverty and starvation it will reset the course of evolution on this planet.
Within the last 10,000 years, human influence over the Earth's ecosystems have been so extensive that scientists have difficulty estimating the number of species lost. This suggests that the rates of deforestation, reef destruction, wetland draining and other human acts are proceeding much faster than human assessment of species.
The goal of conservation is to conserve habitat in terrestrial ecoregions and stop deforestation. To protect sea life from extinction due to overfishing is another goal of conservation.
Thus conservation primarily focuses on the maintenance of health of the natural world i.e. its fisheries, habitats and biological diversity.
6.1 Species extinction
It refers to the end of an organism or of a group of organisms. The moment of extinction is generally considered to be the death of the last individual of the group. The capacity to breed and recover may have been lost before this point.
Through evolution, new species arise through the process of speciation. New varieties of organisms arise and thrive when they are able to find and exploit an ecological niche. Species become extinct when they are no longer able to surv conditions or against superior competition. A typical species becomes extinct within 10 million years of its first appearance. Some species called living fossils, survive unchanged for hundreds of million of years.
Mass extinctions are rather rare events but isolated extinctions are quite common. Some scientists estimate that up to half of presently existing species may become extinct by 2100. Species which are not extinct are termed extant. Those that are extant but threatened by extinction are referred to as threatened or endangered species.
Humans can cause extinction of a species through overharvesting, pollution, habitat destruction, introduction of new predators and food competitors, overhunting and other influences.
According to International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), 784 extinctions have been recorded since the year 1500 to 2004.
Coextinction: refers to the loss of a species due to the extinction of another. It is exemplified by the extinction of parasitic insects following the loss of their hosts.
6.2 Pollinator decline
It refers to the reduction in abundance of pollinators in many ecosystems worldwide during the end of the 20th century.
Pollinators participate in sexual reproduction of many plants by ensuring cross-pollination, essential for some species, or a major factor in ensuring genetic diversity for others. As plants are the primary food source for some animals, the reduction of one of the pollination agents, or even their possible disappearance has raised concern. Therefore, the conservation of pollinators has become part of biodiversity conservation efforts.
It is believed that about one third of human nutrition is due to bee pollination. This includes the majority of fruits, many vegetables and secondary effects from legumes such as alfalfa and clover fed to livestock.
The value of bee pollination in human nutrition and food for wildlife is immense. It is difficult to quantify. The crop value in respect of just one pollinator, the Western honey bee, has been calculated to be 14.6 billion USD.
One of the possible explanations for pollinator decline is pesticide misuse. It is a serious violation to apply most insecticides On crops during bloom or to allow the pesticide to drift to blooming weeds that bees tend to visit. This practice can effect native wild bees even more, because they have no human to protect them. Other factors that pose a constant threat to bee populations and thus responsible for pollinator decline are rapid transfer of parasites and diseases of pollinator species around the world, loss of habitat and forage, hive destruction, and air pollution.
6.3 Coral bleaching
It refers to the whitening of corals. It occurs either due to Stress induced expulsion or death of their symbiotic protozoa, zooxanthellae, or due to loss of pigmentation within the protozoa. The corals that form the structure of great reef ecosystems of tropical seas depend upon a symbiotic relationship with the flagellate protozoa, called zooxanthellae. These are photosynthetic and live within their tissues. Once bleaching begins and if coral colony survives the stress period, zooxanthellae often require weeks to months to return to normal density.
Coral bleaching can be induced by increased or reduced water temperatures; increased photosynthetically active radiation and UV band light; changes in water chemistry; starvation caused by a decline in zooplankton; pathogen infections, changes in salinity; low tide air exposure and cyanide fishing. In the 2010 to 2040 period, coral reefs are expected to become highly susceptible to more frequent bleaching. This poses the greatest threat to the world's reef systems.
6.4 Holocene extinction
It is the ongoing extinction of species during the present Holocene epoch (since around 10000 BC). The large number of extinctions include numerous families of plants and animals including mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and arthropods. Numerous extinctions are occurring in the rainforests. Between 1500 and 2009, 875 extinctions have been documented by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.
Though most extinctions go undocumented, it is estimated that 1,40,000 species per year may be the present rate of extinction. Holocene extinction includes the notable disappearance of large mammals (megafauna) which started about 11,500 years ago as humans developed and spread. These disappearances might have been the consequence of global warming (the current climate change), a result of proliferation of modern humans or both.
The notable extinctions that have taken place are listed below:
- New Zealand - Several species became extinct after Polynesian settlers arrived including 10 species of Moa, giant flightless birds; the giant Haast's eagle, the flightless predatory Adzebills.
- Pacific, including Hawaii
Starting around 30,000 years ago, about 2000 species of birds have gone extinct since the arrival of humans, viz. grazing ducks from Hawaii, Wood-walking Goose from Maui, Mekosuchine crocodiles from New Caledonia. 10 species of birds have disappeared from Hawaiian islands since 1980s.
Madagascar: With the arrival of man about 2000 years ago, all the megafauna of the island became extinct including 8 or more species of elephant birds, 17 species of lemurs, 2 species of digging mammals unlike today's.
Indian Ocean Islands: The species that became extinct following human settlement in the last 1500 years include species of giant tortoise, 14 species of birds on Mascarene islands including the Doda, the Rodriguez Solitaire.
Ongoing Holocene extinction: Megafaunal extinctions continue into the 21st century that include Giant Panda, Sumatran Rhinoceros, North American Black-Footed Ferret, Tasmanian Tiger, Quagga (a Zebra relative), Stellar's Sea Cow, Falkland Island Fox, Atlas Bear.
6.5 Invasive species
Invasive species are defind in two ways. The first, most commonly used definition applies to non-indigenous species i.e. "non-native", plants or animals that effect the habitats and bioregions they invade economically, environmentally and / or ecologically.
The second definition includes the first, but broadens to include indigenous or native species, with the non-native ones, that gets disrupted by a dominant colonization of a particular habitat or wildland areas from loss of natural controls.
Thus invasive species are plants, animals, fungi, or microorganisms that spread rapidly and cause harm to other species, communities, or entire ecosystems. Consequent upon the damage they cause, many scientists are working to slow down the spread of invasive species.
The introduction of species beyond their natural range is expanding rapidly. It is due to increased transport, trade, travel, tourism and the unprecedented reach of goods resulting from globalization. The introduction of alien species can have far reaching and often harmful effects upon the biological diversity and the function of invaded ecosystems. It causes significant losses in economic value of a particular habitat or wildland areas from loss of natural controls.
6.6 Poaching
It is the illegal taking of wild plants or animals contrary to local land and international conservation and wildlife management laws. Violation of hunting laws and regulations are normally punishable by law. Collectively such violations are known as poaching.
Only wild animals can be poached. Stealing or killing domestic animals is considered to be theft ("cattle rustling"), not poaching. Plant poaching is also on the rise. A prominent example is the removal of ginseng growing in the Great Smoky Mountain National Park. It is estimated that wild ginseng plants are worth $ 260 to 365 per pound (dried) on the black market.
6.7 Endangered species
It is a population of organisms which is at risk of becoming extinct because it is either few in numbers, or threatened by changing environmental or predation parameters. IUCN has calculated the percentage of endangered species as 40% of all organisms in 2006.
Many nations have strict laws offering protection to conservation reliant species. These include forbidding hunting, restricting of land development or creating preserves.
The Siberian Tiger is a subspecies of tiger that is critically endangered. Three species of tiger are already extinct. The most endangered Asiatic top predator, the dhole is on the edge of extinction.
7.0 Conservation efforts in India
Out of the natural resources available to us, some are exhaustible or nonrenewable type such as minerals and oils which can be used only one time. Once exhausted, they are depleted completely. But some others, like land, water, fisheries and forests are renewable or non-exhaustible in nature. If proper care is taken, they can be utilized endlessly.
Hence for sustainable development, careful use of the exhaustible resources and maintenance of the quality of renewable resources are needed. For that, certain objectives should be followed.
7.1 Objectives for natural resources development
The objectives outlined for natural resource development are
- Conversation of renewable resources and economic use of exhaustible resources for sustainable development.
- Multipurpose use for resources,
- Much emphasis should be given on development of non-conventional energy resources,
- Economic use of resources to achieve minimum waste.
- Environmental impact assessment for new projects.
- Nature of balance should not be disturbed through exploitation of natural resources.
7.2 Land resources
The total land area of India is of 32, 87,262 sq. kms. But statistical information is available for only 93 per cent of total area. Out of this the productive or cultivable land is only 47 per cent. Rest 19 per cent comes under forest, 9 per cent as fallow lands, 11 per cent as cultivable waste land and others. Figures of availability of arable land per capita reveal that India is not favorably placed in this respect.
When India accounts for 16 per cent of world population, it possesses only 2.4 per cent of the land surface of the world. Hence efforts should be taken to increase cultivable area. Now it is trying to add fallow lands and cultivable waste lands which account for 20 per cent to net area sown and to increase the area under double cropping using modern scientific techniques.
7.3 Forest resources
Forests are an important renewable natural resources that contribute substantially to economic development. They provide raw materials to a number of important industries, namely, matchboxes, paper, newsprint, rayon, furniture, construction, tanning etc.
Apart from timbers and woods, forests are rich sources of varieties of valuable plants for medicine, spices, dyes, bamboo, canes, grasses, lac, gums, tanning materials etc. From checking of wood and soil erosion to wild life protection, rainfall, human recreation, water sheds and balance of nature, forests play a major role in enhancing quality of environment.
The total area under forest is of 752.9 laky hectares which is 19 per cent of the total geographic are. This area is gradually decreasing year after year due to deforestation. On the basis of legal status forests are classified into (i) reserved (53%) (ii) protected (30%) and (iii) unclasped (17%) forests. Forest area is concentrated in few States like Assam, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and a few union territories, but it is deficient in northern India. There is a need to develop forest areas in the entire country.
7.4 Forest policy
The forest area is decreasing very fast day by day. Hence the Government of India declared its Forest Policy in 1952 to increase the forest areas. According to this policy, it was decided to raise steadily the forest area to 33 per cent for the country as a whole, 60 per cent area under the forests for hilly regions and for plains to bring this area to 20 per cent.
The 1952 Forest Policy was again revised in 1988 and the main objective of the revised forest policy of 1988 is. Protection, Conservation and Afforestation. It emphasizes on:
- Substantial increase in forest/tree cover through massive forestation and social forestry programmes.
- Maintenance of environmental stability through preservation and restoration of ecological balance.
- Conservation of natural heritage.
- Check on soil erosion and denudation in catchment areas of rivers, lakes and reservoirs.
- Check on extension of sand dunes in desert areas of Rajasthan.
- Steps to meet requirements of fuel wood, fodder and minor forest produce of rural and tribal populations.
- Increases in productivity of forests to meet national needs.
- Steps to generate massive people's awareness to achieve objectives and minimise pressure on existing forests.
The Department of Forest, Government of India has given much emphasis on afforestation and development of waste lands, reforestation and plantation in the existing forest, prohibition of grazing and elimination of forest contractors.
8.0 INTERNATIONAL EFFORTS AT CONSERVATION
8.1 The Brundtland Report
The Brundtland Report (also known as Our Common Future) was published in 1987. It emphasizes upon the urgency of making progress toward economic development that could be sustained without depleting natural resources or harming the environment. Published by an international group of politicians, civil servants and experts on the environment and development, the report defined sutainable development as:
'[Development that] meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.'
The Brundtland Report focused primarily on the needs and interests of humans, and was concerned with securing a global equity for future generations by redistributing resources towards poorer nations to encourage their economic growth. It was the wish of the Report that all human beings should be able to achieve their basic needs. The Report also suggested that social equity, economic growth and environmental maintenance are simultaneously possible and that each nation is capable of achieving its full economic potential whilst at the same time enhancing its resource base. However, it recognised that achieving this equity and sustainable growth would require technological and social change. Three fundamental components of sustainable development were highlighted by this report which were
Environment: We should conserve and enhance our resource base, by gradually changing the ways in which we develop and use technologies.
Social Equity: Developing nations must be allowed to meet their basic needs of employment, food, energy, water and sanitation. If this is to be done in a sustainable manner, then there is a definite need for a sustainable level of population.
Economic Growth: Economic growth should be revived and developing nations should be allowed a growth of equal quality to the developed nations.
8.2 The Earth Summit 1992
The UN General Assembly convened the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED). The objective was to assess the progress made on sutainable development according to the observations of the Brundtland report. Held in June 1992 at Rio de Janeiro in Brazil, the Rio Earth Summit as it became known, was the largest environmental conference ever held, attracting over 30,000 people including more than 100 heads of state. The objectives of the conference were to build upon the hopes and achievements of the Brundtland Report, in order to respond to pressing global environmental problems and to agree major treaties on biodiversity, climate change and forest management. Perhaps for the first time, a major environmental conference adopted a more nature-centred approach towards environmental problems.
Despite its environmental focus, the biggest arguments at the Earth Summit concerned finance, consumption rates and population growth. The developed nations were calling for environmental sustainability, but the less industrialised developing nations were demanding a chance to allow their economies to catch up with the developed world.
The Earth Summit produced a number of outcomes including:
- The Convention on Biological Diversity;
- The Framework Convention on Climate Change;
- Principles of Forest Management;
- The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development; and
- Agenda 21.
Together these outcomes covered every aspect of sustainable development. Legislation was passed and many agreements made, committing nations, including the UK, to become more sustainable. These agreements and guidelines are still adhered to today and are influencing many political and business decisions.
8.3 The Earth Summit, 2012
The Earth Summit 2012 is also known as the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (UNCSD). It was held in 2012, twenty years after the Rio summit in 1992. The underlying objective of this summit was to look at the progress that had been made, and the challenges that emerged. The themes of the 2012 Earth Summit were:
A Green Economy in the Context of Poverty Eradication and Sustainable Development: The recent economic troubles are proof that we need to create a more stable "green economy." A green economy would incorporate social and environmental sustainability along with development by valuing goods and services provided by ecosystems. A green economy does not ignore people who suffer in poverty or assume an infinite supply of natural resources. A green economy will tax pollution instead of labour. It will make it easier and more profitable for businesses and consumers to make "greener" choices. It will also encourage more efficient technologies and infrastructure that will sustain large populations.
Institutional Framework for Sustainable Development: "Institutional Framework" refers to the system of global organization for sustainable development. This system includes the UN institutions in charge of developing and monitoring sustainable development programs. Progress on sustainable development has been slow partly because this system isn't working: the international organizations involved do not have the authority or the resources to make real change. For sustainable development to move forward, the system needs to be streamlined and given more resources and authority from participating states.
8.4 Objectives
Securing Political Commitment to Sustainable Development: All the leaders involved in the conference need to make concrete commitments. We need leaders to take responsibility - we want their assurance that they will make every effort to develop sustainably. Canada is a key player in securing international commitment. We are a global leader, and if we make a real commitment, others will follow!
Current International Agreements: Several commitments to sustainable development have been made at past UN conferences, including Agenda 21 (1992), the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (1992) and the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation (2002). Before we can move forward, we need to look at how far we've come in honouring these commitments.
Addressing New and Emerging Challenges: Many of the challenges we face have become more urgent as they occur simultaneously with other problems; we need to address them before they get worse. These challenges include the financial crisis, a growing food security crisis, water scarcity, forced migration and natural disaster preparedness.
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