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Environmental laws in India,
pollution & degradation
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The State’s responsibility with regard to environmental protection has been laid down under Article 48-A of our Constitution, which reads as follows:
“The State shall endeavour to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country”.
Environmental protection is a fundamental duty of every citizen of this country under Article 51-A(g) of our Constitution which reads as follows:
“It shall be the duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures.”
Article 21 of the Constitution is a fundamental right which reads as follows:
“No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to procedure established by law.”
Article 48-A of the Constitution comes under Directive Principles of State Policy and Article 51 A(g) of the Constitution comes under Fundamental Duties.
The State’s responsibility with regard to raising the level of nutrition and the standard of living and to improve public health has been laid down under Article 47 of the Constitution which reads as follows:
“The State shall regard the raising of the level of nutrition and the standard of living of its people and the improvement of public health as among its primary duties and, in particular, the State shall endeavour to bring about prohibition of the consumption except for medicinal purposes of intoxicating drinks and of drugs which are injurious to health.”
The 42nd amendment to the Constitution was brought about in the year 1974 makes it the responsibility of the State Government to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country. The latter, under Fundamental Duties, makes it the fundamental duty of every citizen to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures.
The entries related to environment in the seventh schedule of the Constitution are :
Entries
52 Industries
53 Regulation and development of oil fields and mineral oil resources
54 Regulation of mines and mineral development
56 Regulation and development of inter state rivers and river valleys
57 Fishing and fisheries beyond territorial waters
State List
Entries
6 Public health and sanitation
14 Agriculture, protection against pest and prevention of plant diseases
20 Economic and social planning
20 APopulation control and family planning
As conferred by Article 246(1), while the Union is supreme to make any law over the subjects enumerated in List I, the States, under Article 246 (3), enjoy competence to legislate on the entries contained in List II, and both the Union and the States under Article 246(2) have concurrent jurisdiction on entries contained in List III. In the event of a clash, the Union enjoys a primacy over States in that its legislation in the Union and the Concurrent List prevails over State legislations. Also, the Parliament has residuary powers to legislate on any matter not covered in the three Lists (Art. 248).
2.0 Environmental clearances to industries - a whole new approach
The MoEFCC, Government of India, has released a new categorization of industries based on their pollution load. As per the Ministry, the new category of "White industries" which is practically non-polluting will not require Environmental Clearance (EC) and Consent and will help in getting finance from lending institutions.
This is a landmark decision to give a fair picture of the industries. Re-categorization of industries based on their pollution load is a scientific exercise. The old system of categorization was creating problems for many industries and was not reflecting the pollution of the industries.
The Pollution Index, which is a function of the emissions (air pollutants), effluents (water pollutants), hazardous wastes generated and consumption of resources. References are taken from the the (a) Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess (Amendment) Act 2003, (b) standards prescribed for various Pollutants under Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 and (c) Doon Valley Notification, 1989 issued by MoEFCC.
The Pollution Index PI of any industrial sector is a number from 0 to 100 and the increasing value of P1 denotes the increasing degree of pollution load from the industrial sector. The following criteria on 'Range of Pollution Index ' for the purpose of categorization of industrial sectors is finalized.
- Red category -Industrial sectors having Pollution Index score of 60 and above
- Orange category - Industrial sectors having Pollution Index score of 41 to 59
- Green category - Industrial sectors having Pollution Index score of 21 to 40
- White category - Industrial sectors having Pollution Index score incl. & upto 20
Some key aspects of the new policy are -
- 25 industrial sectors which were not critically polluting were also earlier categorized as Red. That will no longer be the case.
- Due importance has been given to relative pollution potential of the industrial sectors based on scientific criteria.
- Wherever possible, splitting of the industrial sectors is also considered based on the use of raw materials, manufacturing process adopted and in-turn pollutants expected to be generated.
- No. of industrial sectors as per new classification will be -
- Red category - 60
- Orange category - 83
- Green category - 63
- White category - 36 (practically non-polluting)
- There shall be no necessity of obtaining the "Consent to Operate" for White category of industries. An intimation to concerned SPCB / PCC shall suffice.
- No Red category of industries shall normally be permitted in the ecologically fragile area / protected area.
- The new criteria will prompt industrial sectors willing to adopt cleaner technologies, ultimately resulting in generation of fewer pollutants.
- It will facilitate self-assessment by industries as the subjectivity of earlier assessment has been eliminated.
- This 'Re-categorization' will create a transparent working environment in the country and promote the Ease of Doing Business.
View the full list of industries on www.PTeducation.com/pollution
3.0 National Green Tribunal (NGT)
The National Green Tribunal (NGT) was established on 18.10.2010 under the National Green Tribunal Act 2010 for effective and expeditious disposal of cases relating to environmental protection and conservation of forests and other natural resources including enforcement of any legal right relating to environment and giving relief and compensation for damages to persons and property and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto. It is a specialized body equipped with the necessary expertise to handle environmental disputes involving multi-disciplinary issues. The Tribunal shall not be bound by the procedure laid down under the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908, but shall be guided by principles of natural justice. Its dedicated jurisdiction in environmental matters shall provide speedy environmental justice and help reduce the burden of litigation in the higher courts. It will try to dispose of applications or appeals finally within 6 months of filing of the same. New Delhi is the Principal Place of Sitting of the Tribunal and Bhopal, Pune, Kolkata and Chennai shall be the other four place of sitting of the Tribunal.
3.1 NGT pulls up MoEFCC (March 2016)
The National Green Tribunal pulled up the Union Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change (MoEFCC) for failure to implement its order to ensure power and coal companies in state followed the clean coal norms. NGT's Pune-based western zone bench expressed disappointment over non-compliance of its October 15, 2015 order by which supply and use of clean coal with ash content below 34% was made mandatory for coal and power companies. MOEFCC is expected to issue a notification to reduce pollution in coal bearing and power generating regions. The stern directive came while hearing an application by Koradi resident Ratnadeep Rangari who alleged blatant violation of MOEFCC norms that prohibit use of coal having more than 34% ash content by the coal and power utilities. The judges had also asked respondents for strict implementation of MOEFCC notification of January 2, 2014, and August 26, 2015, that made it mandatory for power and coal companies to adopt clean coal technology and beneficiation process to reduce pollution level and flyash generated by usage of inferior quality coal. However, the Ministry failed to comply, which was brought to NGT's notice by Rangari.
This specific case highlights the strictness with which the NGT approaches matters related to public health and environment.
4.0 MANDATORY REQUIREMENTS - ENVIRONMENT
4.1 The Electricity Act, 2003
This Act seeks to create a framework for the power sector development by measures conducive to the industry. Electricity Act does not explicitly deal with environmental implications of activities related to power transmission. The applicable legal provisions under this Act are as follows: Section 68(1) - sanction from the Ministry of Power (MOP) is a mandatory requirement for taking up any new project.
4.2 The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980
This Act provides for the conservation of forests and regulating diversion of forestlands for non-forestry purposes. When projects falls within forestlands, prior clearance is required from relevant authorities under the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980. State governments cannot de-reserve any forestland or authorise its use for any non-forest purposes without approval from the Central government.
The steps for forest clearance are briefly described below:
4.2.1 Identification of forest area involved (location of project)
Preliminary location of project is done by using tools such as the forest atlas and Survey of India maps. During route alignment, all possible efforts are made to avoid the forest area (like national park and sanctuaries) or to keep it to the barest minimum. Whenever it becomes unavoidable due to the geography of terrain or heavy cost involved in avoiding it, different alternative options are considered to minimize the requirement of forest area.
For selection of optimum proposal, the following criteria are taken into consideration:
- any monument of cultural or historical importance is not affected by the project;
- the proposed alignment of the project line does not create any threat to the survival of any community with special reference to Tribal Community;
- the proposed alignment of the project does not affect any public utility services such as playgrounds, schools and other establishments;
- the alignment of the project does not pass through any sanctuaries, National Park, Biosphere reserves or eco-sensitive zones; and
- the alignment of the project does not infringe with area of natural resources.
To achieve this, selection of forest area involved is undertaken in close consultation with representatives from the State forest departments and the Department of Revenue. Minor alterations are made to avoid environmentally sensitive areas and settlements at execution stage.
Trees on such locations are felled but after stringing is complete and natural regeneration is allowed to specific heights and whenever required the tree plantation is taken.
4.2.2 Formulation of forest proposal
After finalization of forest area involved for project location, the corporate submits details in prescribed proforma to the respective DFO/ Nodal Officer (Forest) of concerned State Government. DFO/ Nodal Officer forwards the details to the concerned Divisional Forest Officer (DFO) / Conservator of Forest for formulation of forest proposal for processing of clearance under the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980.
The DFO then surveys the relevant forest area required for the construction of project under the possible alternatives. Forest authorities conduct a cost-benefit analysis to assess the loss of forest produce, loss to environment vis-à-vis benefits of project. Compensatory Afforestation (CA) scheme is prepared to compensate loss of vegetation and is the most important and integral part of the proposal. For CA, the forest authorities identify degraded forestland of twice the area of affected land. SJVNL provides undertaking/ certificate to meet the cost of compensatory afforestation and the Net Present Value of forestland diverted. The NPV rate varies from Rs. 5.8 to Rs. 9.2 lakh per hectare (as per MoEF Notification) and is payable to the “Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority” (CAMPA). If the forest is rich in wildlife, then the Chief Wildlife Warden also gets a detailed assessment report prepared including measures to protect the wildlife, which is submitted with the proposal
.
4.2.3 Approval of proposal
The proposal is submitted to the state forest department and then forwarded to the principal chief conservator of forests in the state and finally to the state secretariat. The State Government recommends the proposal for further processing and approval to
- Concerned Regional Office of the MoEF if the area involved is 40 hectare or less
- MoEF, New Delhi if the area is more than 40 hectare.
To facilitate speedy approval of forest proposal involving lesser area, Ministry of Environment & Forests had established Regional Offices in each region for processing and approving these proposals. The MoEF approves the proposal in two stages. In principle or first stage approval is accorded with certain conditions depending upon the case. Second stage, or final approval is provided after the compliance report of the conditions stipulated in first Forest Proposal (FP) is received by MOEF, GOI from State Forest Department.
Corporates are expected to follow all relevant guidelines including the directions of the Supreme Court in this regard from time to time.
5.0 ENVIRONMENTAL (PROTECTION) ACT, 1986
The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 was introduced as an umbrella legislation that provides a holistic framework for the protection and improvement to the environment.
In terms of responsibilities, the Act and the associated Rules requires for obtaining environmental clearances for specific types of new / expansion projects (addressed under Environmental Impact Assessment Notification, 1994) and for submission of an environmental statement to the State Pollution Control Board annually. Environmental clearance is not applicable to hydro projects also.
Corporates undertake Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) for all projects as a standard management procedure as laid down in The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 and also function within permissible standards of ambient air quality and noise levels as prescribed by national laws and international regulations.
5.1 Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1981
The objective of this Act is to provide for the prevention, control and abatement of air pollution, for the establishment, with a view to carrying out the aforesaid purposes, of Boards, for conferring on and assigning to such Boards powers and functions relating thereto and for matters connected therewith.
Decisions were taken at the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment held in Stockholm in June 1972, in which India participated, to take appropriate steps for the preservation of the natural resources of the earth which, among other things, includes the preservation of the quality of air and control of air pollution.
Therefore it is considered necessary to implement the decisions foresaid in so far as they relate to the preservation of the quality of air and control of air pollution.
5.2 Water (Prevention & Control) Act 1974
The objectives of the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act are to provide for the Prevention and Control of Water Pollution and the maintenance or restoration of the wholesomeness of water for the establishment, with a view to carrying out the purposes aforesaid, of Boards for the prevention and control of water pollution, for conferring on and assigning to such Boards powers and functions relating thereto and for matters connected therewith.
5.3 Wildlife Protection Act, 1972
According to the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 “wildlife” includes any animal, bees, butterflies, crustacea, fish and moths; and aquatic or land vegetation which forms part of any habitat. In accordance with Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act, 2002 “no alternation of boundaries / National Park / Sanctuary shall be made by the State Govt. except on recommendation of the National Board for Wildlife (NBWL)”.
Further, in terms of Supreme Court Order dated 13.11.2000 the State Govts have to seek prior permission of Supreme Court before submitting the proposal for diversion of forest land in National Park sanctuaries.
Whenever, any part of Wildlife Sanctuary / National Park is getting affected by a hydro project the forest proposal in respect of such project is entertained by MoEF, GOI only after permission of de-reservation / de-notification of Wildlife Sanctuary /National Park has been accorded. After recommendation of Standing Committee of NBWL proposal for de-reservation/ de-notification is ratified by Hon’ble Supreme Court.
5.4 The Biological Diversity Act, 2002
The Ministry of Environment and Forests has enacted the Biological Diversity Act, 2002 under the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity signed at Rio de Janeiro on the 5th day of June, 1992 of which India is also a party. This Act is to “provide for the conservation of biological diversity, sustainable use of its components, and fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the use of biological resources, knowledge and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto.” As per the provision of act certain areas, which are rich in biodiversity and encompasses unique and representative ecosystems are identified and designated as biosphere reserve to facilitate its conservation. All restrictions applicable to protected areas like National Park & Sanctuaries are also applicable to these reserves.
5.5 Hazardous Wastes (Management and Handling) Amendment Rules, 2003
These Rules classify used mineral oil as hazardous waste under the Hazardous Waste (Management & Handling) Rules, 2003 that requires proper handling and disposal. Organisation will seek authorisation for disposal of hazardous waste from concerned State Pollution Control Boards (SPCB) as and when required.
5.6 Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation and Control) Rules, 2000
Ministry of Environment and Forests vide its notification dt. 17th July, 2000 under the section of 6, 8 and 25 of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 has notified rules for regulation/ control of Ozone Depleting Substances ( ODS) under Montreal Protocol. As per the notification certain control and regulation has been imposed on manufacturing, import, export, and use of these compounds.
Organisations as per provisions of notification shall is phase out all equipment, which uses these substances, and is aiming at CFC free organisation in near future.
6.0 OTHER ENVIRONMENT- RELATED LAWS
The Shore Nuisance (Bombay and Kolaba) Act, 1853
This is the earliest Act on the statue book concerning control of water pollution in India.
The Serais Act, 1867
The Act enjoined upon a keeper of Serai or an inn to keep a certain quality of water fit for consumption by “persons and animals using it” to the satisfaction of the District magistrate or his nominees. Failure for maintaining the standard entailed a liability of rupees twenty.
The North India Canal and Drainage Act, 1873
Certain offences have been listed under the Act contained in Section 70.
Obstruction in Fairways Act, 1881
Section 8 of the Act empowered the Central Government to make Rules to regulate or prohibit the throwing of rubbish in any fairway leading to a port causing or likely to give rise to a bank or shoal.
The Indian Fisheries Act, 1897
contains seven sections. Section 5 of the Act prohibits destruction offish by poisoning waters.
Indian Ports Act, 1908
Water pollution by oil has been regulated by the Indian Ports Act, 1908.
The Indian Forest Act, 1927
Section 26(i) of the Act makes it punishable if any person, who, in contravention of the rules made by the State Government, poisons water of a forest area. The State Government has been empowered under Section 32(f) to make rules relating to poisoning of water in forests.
The Damodar Valley Corporation Act, 1948
The Act authorises the Corporation to make regulations with the previous sanction of the Central Government for preventing “pollution of water”.
The Factories Act, 1948
Factories Act, 1948 is a social welfare legislation intend to secure health, safety and welfare of the workers employed in factories. Hiowever, some of the provisions of this Act are concerned with prevention of water pollution.
The Mines Act, 1952
Chapter V of the Act deals with provisions regarding health and Safety of the employees. Section 19(i) Government upon arrangement for the quality of water for drinking purposes.
The River Boards Act, 1956
The Act provides for the creation of River Boards for regulation and development of interstate rivers and river valleys. One of the functions of the Board is to advise to the Government concerned on “prevention of pollution of the waters of the interstate rivers”.
The Merchant Shipping Act, 1958
The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil, 1954 is the first treaty for the reduction of oil pollution of the sea. In order to give effect to this Convention, the Merchant Shipping Act regulates and controls the discharge of oil or oil mixture by an Indian tanker or ship within any of the prohibited zones or by a foreign tanker or other ship within the prohibited zone adjoining the territories of India. Further, there is a prohibition for discharging any oil anywhere at sea from an Indian ship.
Indian Forest Act 2019 Draft
What are the key features :
- Powers - The draft law proposes to restore higher management powers and a degree of veto power with the forest bureaucracy over the Forest Rights Act, 2006.
- Forest officials would be able to -
- deny or extinguish rights over traditional forests of tribals, even those already recognised under the FRA
- reduce or restrict tribals and forest dwellers' access to forest produce (which they own under the FRA)
- diminish the role of gram sabhas (village assemblies) by running a parallel system of "village forests” wherein officials would have the last say
- Also, the powers to investigate, search and seize property, hold inquiries by forcing attendance of witnesses and evidence have been retained and in parts enhanced.
- Moreover, the Centre will be able to intervene in the states on matters of management of forestlands.
- It can overrule the states on several counts when it deems fit.
- Commercial use - The government had earlier proposed as a policy, to open forests to private commercial plantations.
- Facilitating this, the draft law proposes to open any patch of forests it deems fit for commercial plantations.
- The law allows the government to assign forests to non-state entities but not lease it or use it as collateral to raise funds.
- ‘Production forests’ - Introducing legal provisions for commercial forestry, the government proposes to create a new class of forests called ‘production forests’.
- It can as well declare any forests as conservation area for the purpose of enhanced carbon sequestration.
- The conservation areas will also be opened to active forest management for enhancing vegetational growth by reforestation and afforestation.
- Infrastructure - The State Government/UT Administration shall - develop the infra-structure for standardized lock-up rooms for housing the accused provide for transportation of accused provide necessary articles for restraining the accused(s), armouries, safe custody of arms, ammunitions, etc
- The State/UT should provide these to the Forest-officers for implementing the provisions of the Act in each forest division of the country within 2 years.
- Offence - Certain offences that were bailable earlier have been proposed to be made non-bailable.
- The onus of proving innocence in several cases has been left on the accused who are to be presumed guilty till proven otherwise.
- The accused has to prove that s/he is in lawful possession of forest land, forest produce, and has not committed any offence against the Act.
- Protection - The draft law also proposes to provide indemnity to Forest-officer using arms, etc to prevent the forest offence.
- This is in addition to the immunity provided under section 197 of Code of Criminal Procedure 1973 for certain categories of Public Servant.
- The immunity under the draft forest law is higher than what other government officers are usually provided.
- It is similar to the one provided under laws imposed in conflict zones, such as the Armed Forces (Special Powers Act).
- But proceedings against the officers can begin if an inquiry by an authority to be notified by the State Government for the purpose is taken up.
- Even state governments would not be permitted to grant sanction for prosecution without first constituting an inquiry.
- Case - Any person, forest officer, any officer of the State Government cannot withdraw forest offence cases registered under the Act.
- This is to dissuade political executives to incite masses against the provisions of the Act. E.g. many State Governments have withdrawn cases registered under the Indian Forest Act, 1927 to draw political benefits
- Collective punishment - The colonial provision of collective punishment of communities for crimes committed by individuals under the forest law has been retained.
- This applies when fire is caused wilfully or by negligence in a reserved forest, or when theft of forest produce or grazing by cattle occurs.
- The State Government may then suspend the exercise of all rights of pasture or to forest-produce to all dwellers in the region, for a specified period.
7.0 LEGAL AND REGULATORY FRAMEWORK FOR HYDRO PROJECTS
The principal environmental regulatory agency in India is the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF). The MoEF formulates environmental policies and accords environmental clearance for the projects. The State Pollution Control Board (SPCB) accords ‘No Objection Certificate’ (NOC) and ‘Consent for Establishment and Operation’ for the projects.
The project features entail a Environmental Impact Assessment Study to be conducted which is a pre-requisite for obtaining environmental clearance from Ministry of Environment & Forests, Government of India..
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is an important management tool for ensuring optimal use of natural resources for sustainable development, and was introduced in India initially for River Valley Projects in 1978-79. The scope of the EIA has been enhanced to cover other developmental sectors such as industries, mining schemes, energy, etc. To facilitate project proponents in collection of environmental data and formulation of environmental management plans, it is now mandatory under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, for different categories of developmental activities involving investment beyond certain thresholds.
The EIA study document fulfills the requirements for environmental clearance from various agencies at the state level. These include State Pollution Control Board and Committee of Experts working under the aegis of Department of Science & Technology, State Governments.
8.0 FINAL REMARKS
Thus, we find that India is one of the few nations in the world where the constitution carries provisions for conservation of nature. Relevant provisions are present in the chapters on fundamental rights, directive principles of state policy, and fundamental duties.
The Supreme Court of India, and various High Courts, from time to time, keep elaborating upon these provisions through various judgements, thereby creating legal precedents that become the cornerstone of future judicial perspectives.
A host of laws covering everything from water to air, and from forest to land, make a robust legal and regulatory mechanism in India a reality. In recent times, there has been an increasing friction between corporates willing to invest in greenfield projects, and the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) taking a strict view on clearances as per norms. Many such cases have led to the resignation of at least two different ministers of MoEF.
This tension mirrors the worldwide dichotomy that prevails in the capitalist culture - where growing a company materially quarter by quarter is a necessity, and the contours of such prosperity often clash with needs for environment conservation. There will be no quick fixes. Expect fireworks for a long time to come!
9.0 POLLUTION AND DEGRADATION
Environmental degradation is the deterioration of the environment through depletion of resources such as air, water and soil, the destruction of ecosystems and the extinction of wildlife. Increasing use of natural resources by rapidly increasing human population has resulted in overexploitation of natural resources. The consequences of such exploitation are clearly seen in soil erosion, loss of biodiversity and pollution of land, air and water bodies. The degradation of the environment from overexploitation has reached a level which is threatening human well-being and survival.
In nature, there exists an ecological balance. Ecological balance is defined as the condition of equilibrium among the components of a natural community such that their relative numbers remain fairly constant and their ecosystem is stable. Gradual readjustments to the composition of a balanced community take place continually in response to natural ecological succession and to alterations in climatic and other influences.
As years passed by, human activities interfered with this equilibrium and uncontrolled human activities caused significant damage to the environment.
10.0 CAUSES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION
The primary cause of environmental degradation is human disturbance. The degree of the environmental impact varies with the cause, the habitat, and the plants and animals that inhabit it.
10.1 Habitat fragmentation
Habitat fragmentation has a very long term environmental impact. Some of these impacts can destroy entire ecosystems. An ecosystem is a distinct unit and includes all the living and non-living elements that reside within it as well as other components on which they rely on such as streams, lakes, and soils.
Habitats become fragmented when development breaks up solid stretches of land. Examples include roads which may cut through forests or even trails which wind through prairies. While it may not sound all bad on the surface, there are serious consequences. The largest of these consequences are initially felt by specific plant and animal communities, most of which are specialized for their bioregion or require large areas of land to retain a healthy genetic heritage.
Area Sensitive Animals: Some wildlife species require large stretches of land in order to meet all of their needs for food, habitat, and other resources. These animals are called area sensitive. When the environment is fragmented, the large patches of habitat no longer exist. It becomes more difficult for the wildlife to get the resources they to survive, possibly becoming threatened or endangered. The environment suffers without the animals that play their role in the food web.
Aggressive Plant Life: A more critical result of habitat fragmentation is land disturbance. Many weedy plant species, such as garlic mustard and purple loosestrife, are both opportunistic and invasive. A breach in the habitat gives them an opportunity to take hold. These aggressive plants can take over an environment, displacing the native flora. The result is habitat with a single dominant plant which doesn't provide adequate food resources for all the wildlife. Entire ecosystems are threatened with extinction, according to the NRDC - National Resources Defense Council (founded 1970, US).
10.2 Human sources of environmental deterioration
Humans and their activities are a major source of environmental degradation.
Some of the human activities that have led to environmental degradation are:
- Cutting down of forests for cultivable fields, building houses and for taking away logs for making shelters and furniture or fuel. The rate at which trees are cut far exceeds the rate at which trees grow, so forests are getting denuded.
- Trees lose a lot of water through transpiration. This helps in forming rain clouds. Cutting of trees and clearing of forest reduced rainfall in the area. Also removal of plants and trees leads to soil erosion.
- Forests are natural habitats of wild life. Extinction of wild life species is on the rise because their natural habitats are being destroyed due to deforestation.
- Non-renewable energy resources such as coal, natural gas and petroleum are being used up speedily, leading to their depletion.
These examples show the loss of natural resources due to the overuse by humans. On the other hand, the damage is multiplied due to the following factors:
- Excessive burning of coal, wood, kerosene, petrol etc. releases toxic gases such as SO2 (sulphur dioxide), NOx (oxides of nitrogen), CO (carbon monoxide) and hydrocarbons into the air. These gases are also emitted by industries, power plants, automobiles and aircrafts. The toxic gases pollute air which adversely effects human health and plants.
- Acid water from mines, toxic waste of industries, chemical fertilizers and pesticides from agricultural fields have polluted rivers and other water bodies.
- The problem of soil pollution is increasing day by day in villages, cities and industrial areas due to faulty disposal of solid and liquid wastes generated from households and industries.
Thus humans have spoilt the environment by
- depleting natural resources to a critical 5 level and
- causing pollution to natural water bodies and land areas.
Water and air pollution are unfortunately the common causes of environmental degradation. Pollution introduces contaminants into the environment that can maim or even kill plant and animal species. The two often go hand in hand.
10.4 Acid rain
Acid rain occurs when sulfur dioxide from coal plant emissions combines with moisture present in the air. A chemical reaction creates this acid precipitation. Acid rain can acidify and pollute lakes and streams. It causes similar effects to the soil. According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), if enough acid rain falls in a given environment, it can acidify the water or soil to a point where no life can be sustained. Plants die off. The animals that depend upon them disappear. The condition of the environment deteriorates.
10.5 Agricultural runoff
Agricultural runoff is a deadly source of pollutants which can degrade environments, so much so that the EPA identifies agriculture as the primary source of water pollution.
Surface water washes over the soil and into lakes and streams. When it does so, it carries the fertilizers and pesticides used on the farm lands into water resources. Introducing poisons into waterways will have dire consequences. Fertilizers, whether or not they are organic, carry equal risks.
Fertilizers containing large amounts of phosphorus can cause explosions of algae in lakes. As the algae die, bacteria start to breakdown the organic material. It soon develops into a situation where bacteria are using up the available dissolved oxygen in the water. Plants, fish, and other organisms begin to die off. The water becomes acidic. Like acid rain, lakes become dead zones with conditions so toxic that neither plants nor animals can live in these environments.
10.6 Urban development
Ecologists point towards urban development as one of the primary causes of environmental degradation. As populations increased, so did the need for land for homes and farms. Wetlands were drained. Prairies were plowed over.
Environmental degradation in some cases is an irreversible process. In order to reduce any future impacts, city planners, industry, and resource managers must consider the long term effects of development on the environment. With sound planning, future environmental degradation can be prevented.
11.0 NATURAL CAUSES
While environmental degradation is most commonly associated with the activities of humans, the fact is that environments are also constantly changing over time. With or without the impact of human activities, some ecosystems degrade over time to the point where they cannot support the life that is "meant" to live there.
Calamities like landslides, earthquakes, tsunamis, hurricanes, and wildfires can completely decimate local plant and animal communities to the point where they can no longer function. This can either come about through physical destruction via natural disaster, or by the long-term degradation of resources by the introduction of an invasive alien species to a new habitat. The latter often occurs after hurricanes, when lizards and insects are washed across small stretches of water to foreign environments. Sometimes, the environment cannot keep up with the new species, and degradation can occur.
12.0 HUMANS AND ENVIRONMENT DEGRADATION
12.1 Impact of population growth on environment
With growing population, requirement for space, shelter, and commodities have exerted enormous pressure on the environment. To provide for these, land use has change dramatically.
12.2 Clearing land for cultivation to grow more food
Conversion of forest land into farmlands, reclamation of water bodies have resulted in depletion of natural resources and the landscapes have undergone drastic changes. For example, forests have been cleaned over large for cultivation of agriculture crops. Many mangrove forests known to reduce erosion and stabilize shorelines have been cleared use for growing food crops to meet the needs of the growing population.
12.3 Water scarcity
In many areas excessive withdrawal has depleted ground water resources causing acute water scarcity.
Water received as rainfall, flows into rivers, lakes and other water bodies. Some of it seeps into the ground and reaches the ground water. At certain depth of the soil, all the pore spaces between soil particles are saturated with water. This depth is called Water Table. The water table may remain stable if the drawn from the ground water is replenished by the seepage of the rain water. But if water withdrawal exceeds beyond the rate of replenishment of the ground water table keep on receding and resulting in drying out of wells.
12.4 Need for human settlements
Apart from excessive land use changes for growing food, large population means greater requirement for shelter. To make houses for so many, stones and other building materials have to be quarried more rocks have to be blown off and more water to be used.
12.5 Need for transport
Elaborate network of transport is required to fulfill the growing need of teeming millions. Various modes of transports have been developed which consume growing quantities of fossil fuels such as coal, gas and petroleum, polluting the atmosphere.
LAND DEGRADATION
What is land degradation : Land degradation is caused by multiple forces, including extreme weather conditions particularly drought, and human activities that pollute or degrade the quality of soils and land utility negatively affecting food production, livelihoods, and the production and provision of other ecosystem goods and services.
Threats to land integrity
Land degradation has accelerated during the 20th century due to increasing and combined pressures of agricultural and livestock production (over-cultivation, overgrazing, forest conversion), urbanization, deforestation, and extreme weather events such as droughts and coastal surges which salinate land. Desertification, is a form of land degradation, by which fertile land becomes desert.
What does land degradation mean for health : These social and environmental processes are stressing the world's arable lands and pastures essential for the provision of food and water and quality air. Land degradation and desertification can affect human health through complex pathways. As land is degraded and in some places deserts expand, food production is reduced, water sources dry up and populations are pressured to move to more hospitable areas. The potential impacts of desertification on health include:
- higher threats of malnutrition from reduced food and water supplies;
- more water- and food-borne diseases that result from poor hygiene and a lack of clean water;
- respiratory diseases caused by atmospheric dust from wind erosion and other air pollutants;
- the spread of infectious diseases as populations migrate.
Articles of everyday use such as plastic vessels, mugs, buckets etc., agricultural implements, machinery, chemicals, cosmetics etc are manufactured in factories. The raw materials and fossil fuels and water needed to run industries for manufacturing these products lead to their depletion. Rapid industrialization has also led to pollution from dumping of industrial effluents into rivers and other water bodies. Rapid industrialization has caused much damage to the environment. Mining activities have depleted stock of mineral resources particularly fossil fuels.
Present day industrial civilization is becoming a burden on nature and it is time for us to learn to live in harmony with nature.
12.7 Slum development
Over populated areas result in congested roads and slum formation which lack basic amenities like drinking water, drainage, waste disposal, lack of hygienic conditions and filthy environment create potential conditions for public health problems including spread of epidemic diseases. Discharge of untreated effluents and throwing of waste into water bodies have polluted most of the lakes and rivers.
13.0 Deforestation
India has a rich biodiversity with more than 45,000 plant and 91,000 animal species. However the trends of losses are rapid. 10% flora and fauna are on the threatened list and many are on the verge of extinction.
India has the 10th largest forest cover in the world at 68 million hectares. Out of the total forest cover 22.9% (15,701,000 ha) is classified as primary forest, the most biodiverse and carbon-dense form of forest. India had 10,211,000 ha of planted forest. Between 1990 and 2010, India lost an average of 224,750 ha or 0.35% per year. In total, between 1990 and 2010, India gained 7.0% of its forest cover, or around 4,495,000 ha. The forests in India contain 2,800 million metric tons of carbon in living forest biomass.
Approximately 45% of India's land is degraded primarily due to deforestation, unsustainable agricultural practices, mining and excessive groundwater extraction. More than 2/3rds of this can be regenerated. Destruction of forests creates numerous environmental catastrophes, including altering local rainfall patterns, accelerating soil erosion, causing the flooding of rivers, and threatening millions of species of plants, animals and insects with extinction.
Clearing of forests in the modern age is done primarily for two reasons; to fulfil basic necessities and maintain the lifestyle. The main causes of deforestation are: expansion of agricultural and industrial needs, population growth, poverty, consumer demand and landlessness.
The Marrakesh Accord defines deforestation as 'the direct human-induced conversion of forested land to non-forested land'. The Food and Agriculture Organization defines deforestation as 'the conversion of forest to another land use or the long-term reduction of the tree canopy cover below the minimum 10% threshold'. The area under forest as reported by FSI periodically. According to the data released forest area at the national level is indeed increasing consistently from 1995-97 (63.34 m ha) to 2009-11 (69.20 m ha). This leads many to believe that deforestation is not taking place in India. The net annual forest loss or deforestation is estimated to be 65,300 ha during 2003-05, 46,850 ha during 2005-07 and 43,300 ha during 2007-09, even though the national total area estimates show a net gain.
Biodiversity and Protected Areas: India has some 2356 known species of amphibians, birds, mammals and reptiles according to figures from the World Conservation Monitoring Centre. Of these, 18.4% are endemic, meaning they exist in no other country, and 10.8% are threatened. India is home to at least 18664 species of vascular plants, of which 26.8% are endemic. 4.9% of India is protected under IUCN categories I-V. The government's National Action Plan on climate change involves expanding forest cover from the current 23% to 33% of India's territory, and to afforest 6 million hectares of degraded forest land. Rising demand for forest-based products is leading to increasing deforestation and encroachment into forest protected areas which is threatening natural resources.
Forest degradation: The IPCC Special Report on 'Methodological options to inventory emissions from direct human induced degradation of forests and devegetation of other forest types' defines degradation as 'direct human-induced long-term loss (persisting for X years or more) of at least Y% of forest carbon stocks (and forest values) since time (T) and not qualifying as deforestation'. However, this definition has operational limitations because X (human-induced long-term loss), Y (forest carbon stocks) and the minimum area of forest to be measured are difficult to define. Forest areas are classified into 4 types depending on the type of canopy tree cover densities. These are
- Very dense forest (VDF) - All lands having tree cover with canopy density more than 70%.
- Moderately dense forests (MDF) - All lands having a tree cover with canopy density between 40% and 70%.
- Open forests (OF) - All lands having a tree cover with canopy density between 10% and 40%.
- Scrub - All forest lands with poor tree growth, mainly small or stunted trees having canopy density less than 10%.
13.1 Cancun Agreement
In December 2010, parties to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) agreed to slow, halt, and reverse forest loss and the related emissions in developing countries (REDD+). The Cancun Agreements provide important guidance for all actors - countries, NGOs, multilateral institutions - who are helping countries prepare for REDD+ in the "fast-start" period through 2012.
As part of the first phase of activities, countries have to develop a national REDD+ plan or strategy. It would involve selecting the most effective REDD+ strategies with the highest returns by assessing the status of national forests, identifying the location of deforestation, degradation and activities resulting in carbon stock enhancement and their drivers; assessment of the abatement opportunities as to their economic costs and bene fits; and prioritizing them in a national REDD+ pathway through a broad suite of policies and measures while ensuring the relevant safeguards as mentioned in the UNFCCC Decision. While India has a broad set of policies and measures in place for addressing deforestation and degradation and enhancing forest carbon stocks, a dedicated institutional structure needs to be put in place to formulate and implement a national REDD+ strategy with a clearly defined mandate, roles and responsibilities. So far India has not prepared a REDD+ strategy as required under the UNFCCC.
14.0 ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION IN INDIA
Environmental pollution affects the health of more than 120 million people worldwide. Pollution is the contamination of a natural environment, usually by humans. The specific types of pollution are Land pollution, Air Pollution, Water pollution (Oceans, rivers, ground water), Plastic pollution, Noise pollution, Light pollution, space Ozone layer and more.
In India the increasing economic development and a rapidly growing population is putting a strain on the environment, infrastructure, and the country's natural resources. Industrial pollution, soil erosion, deforestation, rapid industrialization, urbanization, and land degradation are all worsening problems. Overexploitation of the country's resources be it land or water and the industrialization process has resulted environmental degradation of resources.
India is among the world's worst performers when it comes to the overall environment. We rank 125 of 132 countries. Environmental degradation costs India about $80bn a year, nearly 6 per cent of gross domestic product, the World Bank said on July 17, 2013 in a report requested by the country's environment ministry. Other surveys show that India has the world's worst air pollution, and has 13 of the 20 most polluted cities among big economies.
14.1 India and US clean energy pact
A bilateral energy cooperation pragramme was established between India and the U.S. on November 8, 2010. To promote clean and energy-efficient businesses, Indian and U.S. companies inked joint venture deals worth $175 million in the renewable energy sector. The US President Barack Obama and Prime Minister Manmohan Singh announced the setting up of Joint Clean Energy Research and Development Centre. The proposed centre is part of the Partnership to Advance Clean Energy (PACE), which forms the core of the "green partnership". Funding for the centre is expected from national budgets and the private sector.
14.2 Air pollution
Delhi - the world's most polluted city
The woes of India's capital Delhi have multiplied, with a count of "respirable suspended particulate matter" that is roughly double that of China's notoriously smoggy capital, Beijing. In 2016, Delhi is ranked by the World Health Organisation (WHO) as the world's most polluted big city. Several other Indian cities are nearly as atrocious, as the image shows.
Some pointers
- Perhaps 25,000-50,000 of greater Delhi's 25m people die prematurely every year because of air pollution.
- The number is growing: admissions for respiratory ailments at a busy teaching hospital soared fourfold between 2008 and 2015
- The trouble is not confined to the capital. In the country as a whole the number of early deaths caused by toxic air could exceed 600,000 a year.
- The largest cause is not cars or factories: it is smoke from home cooking, while in northern India stubble-burning in the countryside is also a factor. But vehicles play a big part, and it is to this source that the keenest attention is now being paid.
- The Odd-Even scheme run by Delhi government to control traffic has surprisingly affected pollution levels positively. The first days of the new year 2016 even saw a discouraging spike in concentrations of PM10 and PM2.5. In parts of the city, PM2.5 (the more harmful of the two sorts, because it penetrates the lungs more deeply) exceeded 500 micrograms per cubic metre. That is 20 times the WHO's guideline for safe air.
- Still, those highs were largely due to winter weather, and were lower and shorter-lasting than previous peaks. The odd-even test not only showed that such emergency measures can limit dangerous pollution; it showed how much more efficient public transport can be when road space is freed up to let it move.
- In December 2015, the Supreme Court slapped a citywide ban on the registration of luxury diesel cars.
- Soon afterwards, the national government declared that it would speed up the introduction of stricter emissions standards for new passenger cars. It is now considering a similar move for two- and three-wheelers. The government is also hurrying to improve the quality of fuel.
- If both new sets of regulations come into effect by 2020, as is planned, new vehicles will emit only a fraction of the pollution they do today. If all this is done, Delhi may get acceptable air in a few years' time.
- The problem's roots were a tripling of the number of vehicles on India's roads between 2002 and 2013. The other was misguided government policy. By subsidising diesel in a bid to woo farmers who rely on it to power water pumps and tractors, successive governments encouraged a massive shift in Indian vehicle markets. Between 2000 and 2013 the proportion of new cars with diesel engines rose steeply, from one in 20 to one in two.
- But the Indian government's mistake has already been corrected. In October 2014 it scrapped diesel subsidies; sales of diesel vehicles have already dropped.
14.3 Coal pollution
Eight percent of India's energy is produced from coal. This worsens India's environmental problems. Coal is a fuel that emits a high amount of carbon and greenhouse gases. According to IMF chief Christine Lagarde pollution from coal generation plants causes about 70,000 premature deaths every year in India. Andhra Pradesh, the coastal state of eastern India is experiencing a coal-plant construction boom, including the 4,000-MW Krishnapatnam Ultra Mega Power Project, one of nine such massive projects in planning or under construction in country.
On August 23, 2011 the Jharkhand State Pollution Control Board has ordered the closure of 22 BCCL mines in the underground fire zone of Jharia. BCCL had taken over most of the 103 mines from private owners. Hence, none of them had got environmental clearances. Most of the coal mines under the JSPCB's scanner were located in Jharia.
The 2,640 MW Sompeta plant proposed by Nagarjuna Construction Company and the 2,640-MW Bhavanapadu plant proposed by East Coast Energy have both provoked large nonviolent protests that have ended in police attacks, including four deaths of local residents. As of May 2011, the Sompeta plant had been cancelled and the Bhavanapadu plant had been placed on hold by officials, with corruption investigations continuing.
On April 12, 2011 the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) has tightened pollution monitoring norms for power projects with a generation capacity of 500 Mw and above, integrated steel plants with a capacity of 1 million tonnes per annum and cement plants with a capacity of 3 million tonnes per annum.
Polluting industrial units: On May 26, 2011 the Haryana State Pollution Control Board ordered closure of 639 polluting industrial units in 2010-11 and directed the highly polluting industries to set up continuous online monitoring stations to ensure compliance of standards of air emissions. The Government launched prosecution against 151 polluting units in the Special Environment Courts in Faridabad and Kurukshetra.
14.4 Brick kilns
India's 1,00,000 brick kilns are noxious sources of pollution, particularly soot, and working them means a life that is always nasty, frequently brutish and often short. But on top of this social evil is an environmental one. The exhaust from the kilns mixes with diesel emissions and other fumes to form a vast brown smog, known as an atmospheric brown cloud, which is up to 3km thick and thousands of kilometres long. Two of its main ingredients, the small carbon particles which the soot is composed of, and ozone, a triatomic form of oxygen, are important contributors to the greenhouse effect, and thus to climate change.
Aircraft pollutants: A study published in the journal Environmental Science and Technology (EST) in the first week of October 2010 estimated that almost 8,000 people die due to aircraft pollutants every year, mostly from India and China.
A recent report by MIT researchers says that the harmful pollutants emitted by an aircraft at an altitude of 35,000ft are fatal for people. The report says that nitrogen and sulphur oxides emitted by aircraft at 35,000ft combine with other gases in the atmosphere to create noxious particulate matter.
Vehicle emissions are responsible for 70% of the country's air pollution. The major problem with government efforts to safeguard the environment has been enforcement at the local level, not with a lack of laws. Air pollution from vehicle exhaust and industry is a worsening problem for India. Exhaust from vehicles has increased eight-fold over levels of twenty years ago; industrial pollution has risen four times over the same period. The economy has grown two and a half times over the past two decades but pollution control and civil services have not kept pace. Air quality is worst in big cities like Kolkata, Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, etc.
Bangalore holds the title of being the asthma capital of the country. Air pollution in the city continues to rise due to vehicular emissions and dust from construction activities, according to the "Environment Report Card of Bangalore 2012". It says the number of vehicles on the city roads have exceeded 3.7 million and there has been a consistent increase in the number vehicles at an average of 8% per year.
14.5 Groundwater exploitation
Groundwater Quality and Pollution is one of the most alarming pollution hazards in India. According to the World Health Organization on World Water Day 2012, on March 22 each year, an estimated four billion people get sick with diarrhea as a result of drinking unsafe water, inadequate sanitation, and poor hygiene. Nearly two million people die from diarrhea each year, and many of them children under the age of five, poor, and living in the developing world. Improper disposal of solid waste, both by the public and the Municipal corporations is causing direct contamination of groundwater, according to Dr M A Farooqui, scientist, Central Ground Water Board (CGWB).
14.6 Plastic Pollution
Plastic bags, plastic thin sheets and plastic waste is also a major source of pollution. A division bench of Allahabad High Court, comprising Justice Ashok Bhushan and Justice Arun Tandon, in May 03, 2010 had directed the Ganga Basin Authority and the state government to take appropriate action to ban the use of polythene in the vicinity of Ganga in the entire state. Also Plastic Bag Pollution in the country is the biggest hazards.
15.0 Pollution due to Mining
New Delhi-based Center for Science and Environment (CSE) on December 29, 2007 said mining was causing displacement, pollution, forest degradation and social unrest. According to the Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) report the top 50 mineral producing districts, as many as 34 fall under the 150 most backward districts identified in the country.
The CSE report has made extensive analysis of environment degradation and pollution due to mining, wherein it has said, in 2005-06 alone 1.6 billion tonnes of waste and overburden from coal, iron ore, limestone and bauxite have added to environment pollution. With the annual growth of mining at 10.7 per cent and 500-odd mines awaiting approval of the Centre, the pollution would increase manifold in the coming years.
The mines of Mahanadi Coal Fields and NTPC draw about 25 Cr litres of water per day from the River Brahmani and in return they release thousands of gallons of waste water, which contains obnoxious substances like Ash, Oil, Heavy Metals, Grease, Fluorides, Phosphorus, Ammonia, Urea and Sulphuric Acid, into the River Nandira (A tributary of River Brahmani).
The effluents from chlorine plant cause chloride and sodium toxicity to the river Rushikulya - the lifeline of southern Orissa. The Phosphoric Fertilizer Industry discharges effluent containing Nitric, Sulphuric and Phosphoric acids into river Mahanadi.
Goa open cast extraction of iron ore has created a degraded air and ground water pollution and severe damage to the state's landscape in deforestation, ground and surface water pollution and damage to agricultural land. The Supreme Court on February 25, 2011 ordered a probe by its committee into alleged illegal mining in Bellary and other forest areas of Karnataka. The explosive report of Lokayukta on July 28, 2011 uncovered major violations and systemic corruption in mining in Bellary Environmental degradation in this region in terms of plundering forest land and complete violation of air and water pollution standards have been devastating.
16.0 Pollution due to biomedical and e-waste
Bio medical waste is another major source of pollution in India. This is likely to spread disease dangerous to life and making atmosphere noxious to health. In early April, 2010 a machine from Delhi University containing cobalt-60, a radioactive metal used for radiotherapy in hospitals, ended up in a scrap yard in the city. The death from radiation poisoning of a scrap yard worker in Delhi has highlighted the lax enforcement of waste disposal laws in India. The International Atomic Energy Agency said it was the worst radiation incident worldwide in four years.
India being used as a dumping ground for hazardous waste, from foreign countries. Twenty containers with goods were detained by the officials of Special Intelligence and Investigation Branch attached to the Customs Department here recently. Packs of broken toys, used diapers, empty perfume bottles, used battery cells, thermocol, used aluminum foil packing materials and coloured surgical gloves were found in the containers. It could also lead to contamination and spread of communicable diseases.
E-waste is a term used to cover almost all types of electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) that has or could enter the waste stream. Although e-waste is a general term, it can be considered to cover TVs, computers, mobile phones, white goods (e.g. fridges, washing machines, dryers etc), home entertainment and stereo systems, toys, toasters, kettles - almost any household or business item with circuitry or electrical components with power or battery supply.
The UNEP report "Recycling - from E-Waste to Resources" was released on the Indonesian island of Bali on February 22, 2010 at the start of a week-long meeting of officials and environmentalists. According to the report's authors by 2020 e-waste in South Africa and China will have jumped by 200-400 per cent from 2007 levels, and by 500 per cent in India. A UN environmental conference in Cartagena, Colombia, attended by more than 170 countries in October 2011, has agreed to accelerate a global ban on the export of hazardous waste, including old electronics and discarded computers and mobile phones, from developed to developing countries. Environmental campaigners, who have been battling to broker a deal on the dumping of toxic waste for more than 20 years, said they were "ecstatic" about this "major breakthrough". "All forms of hazardous waste including that sent for recycling, to obsolete electronic waste, will be banned from leaving wealthy countries destined for developing countries."
India produces about 3,80,000 tonnes of e-waste per annum, which includes only the waste generated out of television sets, mobile phones and PCs, a major chunk of which comes from organizations. E-waste produced in India includes over 100,000 tonnes from refrigerators, 275,000 tonnes from TVs, 56,300 tonnes from personal computers, 4,700 tonnes from printers and 1,700 tonnes from mobile phones. The un-organized recycling sector which fails to practice eco-friendly e-Waste recycling methods release large amount of toxic chemicals. The toxic gases and the large volume of Electronic Waste Adds environmental Pollution in India. India imports almost 50,000 tonnes of e-waste yearly. It generated 330,000 tonnes of e-waste in 2007 and the number is expected to grow substantially in the future.
17.0 India and China - the current pollution scenario and statistics
As a growing economy that is struggling with high poverty levels, India's mission in the next 30 years is to grow as fast as China has in the past 30, but ideally without all the pollution. International experts on climate change mention that the global climate could not bear India following China's path; and the health of Indians could not stand it. If India were to start emitting out as much carbon as China does now (2015-16), it would be adding an extra America's-worth of emissions to the atmosphere every year. That is why curbing pollution would benefit everyone. But it would benefit Indians the most. Pollution kills, literally. Studies have calculated that air pollution (from soot, mostly, not carbon dioxide) have reduced the life expectancy of citizens of northern China by about 5.5 years. The authors of that study have now looked at India, and concluded that air pollution already cuts life expectancy in India by about three years for nearly 700m people.
What went wrong with Delhi: "Delhi has become the most polluted city on Earth" - this may come as a shocker to most Indians, but it is a shameful fact already. Earlier, while Beijing used to regularly suffer smog-induced translucence, the common vision of pedestrians and traffic policemen masking their mouths in a vain attempt to keep out fetid pollution vapours, children choking in their schoolrooms, today alarming levels of airborne pollution are more likely to feature in India's capital, Delhi, the most polluted city on Earth. While China's government has woken up to the impending disaster and started acting to improve, India's is still to. The hundreds of lorries carrying various cargo are a chief reason why Delhi's air is now more toxic than any other city's on earth. Beijing has a worse reputation, with its visible smog from particulates of 10 microns or smaller, known as PM10. But Delhi's grim distinction is that it has even higher levels of PM10, as well as of the smaller particulates, PM2.5, that are more likely to kill because they go deeper into the lungs. Levels of PM2.5 in Delhi are routinely 15 times above levels considered safe by the World Health Organisation. New data suggest that, on this score, Delhi's air has been 45% more polluted than that of the Chinese capital for the past couple of years.
Worldwide assessment: Last year the WHO assessed 1,622 cities worldwide for PM2.5 and found India home to 13 of the 20 cities with the most polluted air. More cities in India than in China see extremely high levels of such pollution. Especially to blame are low standards for vehicle emissions and fuel. Rural people are not better off either. Indoor pollution inhaled from dung-fuelled fires, and paraffin stoves and lights, may kill more than 10 lac rural Indians a year. The WHO says the vast majority of Indians breathe unsafe air. The human cost is seen in soaring asthma rates, including among children. PM2.5 contributes to cancer and it kills by triggering heart attacks and strokes. Air pollution is likely to cause vastly more deaths as Indians grow older and more obese. Indoor and outdoor pollution combined is the biggest cause of death, claiming over 1.6m lives a year.
India's leaders are starting to act, pressed by anti-smog campaigns such as the one by the Times of India to "let Delhi breathe". Prakash Javadekar, the environment minister, says that monitors have been installed on thousands of industrial chimneys to gather data on emissions. Now officials have identified the country's 17 most polluting industries. In theory, at least, every Indian city is now supposed continuously to measure air quality. But state governments are slow to enforce national orders, while the Central Pollution Control Board, India's main environmental agency, does little. Mr Javadekar promises "aggressive action" to improve fuel standards, which would cover those belching lorries coming into Delhi. In March the Supreme Court may anyway order standards to be tightened, by reducing sulphur, as well as instructing carmakers to cut vehicle emissions.
Some Indian cities have begun to monitor particulates in the air. Others should follow and transparently make the data public. Cleaner transport is a priority. The fuel in most of India's cars and lorries is filthy and sulphurous. It is time to raise fuel-efficiency and vehicle-emissions standards both. The scrapping of subsidies on petrol and diesel in recent years has had the welcome effect of raising the costs of running especially noxious generators, which may account for nearly a third of all installed electricity capacity. Given that most people, even in the city, still commute by foot, bus or bicycle - and that only 5% of households own cars - India still has time to set up systems for mass public transport before the car becomes king. Already 14 cities have or are building metros. As for farmers, Sunita Narain, a green activist, says they should be pressed to use modern harvesting machinery that renders it unnecessary to burn stubble in fields, a big cause of air pollution. India surely has plans to clean up. It ended subsidies on diesel in 2014, so firms have less reason to run inefficient, polluting generators and vehicles. Subsidies on paraffin should also end. The dirtiest power plants must close.
The smart states of India: States should follow the lead of Gujarat, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu, which are due to launch the world's first cap-and-trade schemes for particulates. These three industrialised states are about to launch the world's first market for trading permits in emissions of particulate matter. In the town of Surat, in Gujarat, 300 textile plants, which typically burn coal to produce steam, are likely to be the first to trade such permits. Monitoring equipment has already gathered emissions data from these and other plants.
Factories could quickly cut emissions by a lot once they have incentives to do so. They could, for example, clean their equipment better or burn fuel more efficiently. The market can function once India's central government gives the order. That is likely to happen, however, only once the law allows financial rather than criminal penalties for owners whose plants breach legal standards. But it is quite clear that unless the public in India makes a demand for a cleaner life, it will not happen quickly.
India's leaders need to recognise that the pollution created in the rush to improve people's lives sets progress back and that emissions can be curbed in ways that do not wreck economic growth. If, for instance, India were to build a reliable electricity grid it would reduce the use of dirty private generators, cut indoor air pollution from cooking fires and boost productivity all at the same time. China waited too long to clean up its act; India should not make the same mistake.
NATIONAL CLEAN AIR PROGRAMME (NCAP)
What is NCAP : The National Clean Air Programme is a mid-term, five-year action plan that includes collaborative, multi-scale and cross-sectoral coordination between relevant Central ministries, state governments and local bodies. According to the plan, the programme will be further extended after looking at mid-term results.
Key features and highlights of the programme :
- The overall objective of the programme includes comprehensive mitigation actions for prevention, control and abatement of air pollution besides augmenting the air quality monitoring network across the country and strengthening the awareness and capacity building activities
- The Environment Ministry announced a budget of Rs 300 crore for two years to tackle air pollution across 102 cities, which have been identified by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) for not meeting the pollution standards set by the Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change.
- Also, city-specific action plans are being formulated for 102 non-attainment cities identified for implementing mitigation actions under NCAP.
- The Smart Cities programme will be used to launch the NCAP in the 43 smart cities falling in the list of the 102 non attainment cities.
- The programme will be institutionalized by respective ministries and will be organized through inter-sectoral groups, which include, Ministry of Road Transport and Highway, Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas, Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, Ministry of Heavy Industry, Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs, Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of Health, NITI Aayog, CPCB, experts from the industry, academia, and civil society.
- Other features of NCAP include the increasing number of monitoring stations in the country including rural monitoring stations, technology support, emphasis on awareness and capacity building initiatives, setting up of certification agencies for monitoring equipment, source apportionment studies, emphasis on enforcement, and specific sectoral interventions.
- Sectoral working groups, national level Project Monitoring Unit, Project Implementation Unit, state-level project monitoring unit, city level review committee under the Municipal Commissioner and DM level Committee in the Districts will also be constituted under NCAP for effective implementation and success of the programme.
COASTAL REGULATION ZONE (CRZ) NOTIFICATION 2018-19
- The Cabinet has cleared the Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) notification allowing for construction up to 50m of the high tide line, and temporary structures only 10m from it in a move that environmental experts and fisherfolk said would ruin the coastal environment.
- The new notification relaxes various provisions of the CRZ 2011 notification, including the reduction of no-development-zone to 20 metres for all islands from the earlier 50 or 100 metres (depending on the type of island).
- The new notification allows for greater real estate and tourism development on the coast, but could come at a significant cost to the environment.
- Fishermen’s unions have warned of a national level agitation if the notification comes into force because it doesn’t address their concerns and makes the coastline vulnerable to environmental disasters.
- The CRZ 2018 also “de-freezes” the current Floor Area Ratio (FAR) caps facilitating real estate development in coastal urban areas and allows for a no-development zone (NDZ) of only 50 metres from high tide line (HTL) as opposed to 200 metres from HTL in CRZ 2011 in populated coastal rural areas. Environmental clearances for projects in CRZ areas have also been simplified—CRZ clearances are needed only for those projects located in CRZ 1 zone or in ecologically sensitive areas and for CRZ VI zone (area between low tide line and 12 nautical miles seaward). A new feature has been added which allows for temporary tourism facilities such as shacks, toilet blocks, drinking water facilities etc on beaches at a minimum distance of only 10 metres from HTL.
- Fisherfolk and environmental experts say the notification will spell disaster for India’s 7,500 km long coastline. The National Fishworkers Forum and other state fishworker unions submitted more than 100000 representations to the environment ministry opposing the draft notification released in April 2018. During cyclone Ockhi last year and Gaja this year, locals noticed that sea water entered 3 to 4 km inland in Tamil Nadu. After the Tsunami in 2004, the entire coastline of TN was declared eco-sensitive. Sand dunes which protect the coast from seawater intrusion will be destroyed completely if temporary structures are allowed..
- Relaxations are being made to facilitate government’s Sagarmala project for inland waterways to drive industrial development. The entire 7,500 km coastline is used by fishworkers for landing canoes. If development is done within 50 metres of HTL it means there is no coastline left for fishermen.
- The new CRZ notification is based on recommendations of the Sailesh Nayak (former secretary, ministry of earth sciences) headed committee.
Tackling stubble burning
- Long term vision needed : To penalise farmers (or giving notice or subsidies) for buring the stubble left after harvesting paddy in Punjab and Haryana, is incorrect. A different vision is needed.
- Dense smog in northern India : It contributes upto 20% to the dense smog in northern India during winters. Farmers are not really at fault, as much as short-sighted govt. policies are.
- Rotation of crops : From 1960s, wheat-paddy crop rotation was encouraged in Punjab and Haryana for higher production. Huge investments in Green Revolution were made in areas like irrigation and HYV seeds.
- Negative fallout : Land degradation, adverse soil health due to pesticide / fertilizer overuse, and reducing water tables!
- Paddy at the cost of others : Punjab saw paddy cultivation growing from 6.8% (1966-67) to 36.4% recently (Haryana saw it grow from 4.97% to 20%). What suffered as a result was maize, cotton, oilseeds and sugarcane. The MSP procurements and input subsidy policies also forced farmers to go this way only.
- 2009 Water Conservation Law, Punjab : It mandates paddy sowing only in June (rather than May), thereby reducing the time to harvest to 15-20 days only. Transplantation before notified day is impossible. The next crop is wheat, and crop yields are to be maintained as well - so best way out is stubble burning!
- How to tackle it ? Encourage crop diversification towards less water-intensive crops. If need be, use the "price deficiency system" as tried in MP and Haryana. Or try the Telangana model of cash support (Rs.8000 per acre per year).
- Pressure : Farmers have invested in seed drill machines (for wheat sowing after paddy harvest), and now they are being pressured to buy "happy seeder" machines to end stubble burning. Even at low costs, it will remain idle for rest of the year, and small/marginal farmers can't buy it. Asking companies to bring machines on rental basis is a better way.
- Uberisation : We can think of "Uberisation of agriculture", if an app-based support for all farm implements is given. That will make farming more mechanised, cost effective and employment-intensive.
- Paddy straw : Wheat residue is fodder for cattle, so is used. Paddy straw has high silica, hence animals can't eat it. But biomass generation in power plants, paper, cardboard mills is possible. Govt. should directly install biomass plants at farm locations. Achieving our R.E. target (227GW by 2022) will be aided.
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