UPSC IAS exam preparation - Technology and environmental issues in India - Lecture 1

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Environmental conservation

1.0 Introduction

In India, since times immemorial, different communities, cultures and practices together ensured greater protection and conservation of biological diversity. This was combined with the fact that cultural and economic needs were very different then from what they are now. Earlier, rampant capitalism and materialism was not there to wreak havoc on mother nature. Today, that seems to be the dominant philosophy.

In the backdrop of this heritage, this rich tradition of conservation, India today holds the distinction of being one of the most densely populated countries, yet being one of the world's mega-biodiversity countries. Unfortunately, it also has one of the highest rates of biodiversity decline.

India is a large and diverse country with an area of 3.287 million sq km that extends from the snow-covered Himalaya in the north to the shores of the Indian Ocean in the south, and from the arid salt-pans of the west to the tropical rain forests of the east. The Indian sub-continent is separated from the Asian mainland by the Himalaya; the country extends between latitudes 8° 4’ and 37° 6’ North, longitudes 68° 7’ and 97° 25’ East and measures about 3,214 km from North to South between the extreme latitudes and about 2,933 km from east to west between the extreme longitudes. India has a land frontier with neighbouring countries of about 15,200 km, and a total coastline length of about 7,500 km. Politically, India is a Union of 29 states (including Telangana formed in the year 2014) and seven union territories, including the Andaman and Nicobar islands toward the south-east, and Lakshadweep Islands in the south-west in Indian ocean. India is neighboured by seven countries namely Afghanistan, Pakistan, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Nepal, China and Sri Lanka. India has the second largest human population of the world with more than 1.36 billion people (in the year 2019) or nearly 17.5% of the world’s population with only 2.4% of the global land area.

India has enormous geographical diversity and a variety of climate regimes and regional and local weather conditions. The climate ranges from continental to coastal, from extremes of heat to extremes of cold, from extreme aridity and negligible rainfall to excessive humidity and torrential rainfall. India’s climate is greatly influenced by the presence of the Himalaya and Thar Desert. The Himalaya helps in keeping the subcontinent warmer than other locations at similar latitudes by acting as a barrier to the cold winds flowing from Central Asia. The northern region of the country possesses continental climate with alternate seasons of severe summer and cold winters. Peninsular India has a more moderate but arid climate. The coastal regions receive abundant rains and have unvarying warmth. The northeast also receives abundant rainfall but has a more contrasting seasonal temperature.

2.0 Conservation, protected areas and the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972

Declining wildlife populations has been a concern for many since the beginning of the last century. Over the last few decades, protection and conservation of wildlife and biodiversity has gradually emerged as a way to deal with this concern.

What is conservation of biodiversity? Conservation has been defined as "maintenance and recovery of viable populations of species in their natural surroundings and, in the case of domesticated or cultivated species, in the surroundings where they have developed their distinctive properties". Conservationists believe that conservation can be achieved in a number of ways, but in particular, by following practices of sustainable use and by creating protected areas. Sustainable use has been defined as "the use of components of biological diversity in a way and at a rate that does not lead to the long-term decline of biological diversity, thereby maintaining its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of present and future generations".

Protected areas have been defined internationally as "a clearly defined geographical space, recognised, dedicated and managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve the long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values".

Although these definitions have only emerged within the last few years, the creation of protected areas as we understand them today is a concept that took birth much earlier, in 1864, when Yellowstone National Park was established in the United States of America. Following that model, the first modern protected area in India was set up in 1931, then called the Halley's National Park (today known as Corbett National Park, in Uttarakhand). Subsequently, a number of protected areas were created in different parts of the country. Finally, in 1972, the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act (WLPA) was passed, paving the way for many more protected areas. In addition, the Government of India initiated a number of other programmes for the protection and revival of populations of highly endangered large animals such as the rhino, gharial, elephant, and tiger - the last was achieved through the launch of Project Tiger, in 1973, to save the country's endangered cat.

The main responsibility for conservation of biodiversity in India, including wildlife, lies with the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) headed by the environment minister based in New Delhi. The ministry initiates national-level programmes, policies and Acts related to conservation of biodiversity. In each state too there is a state minister of environment and state forest department that are responsible for implementing central schemes in the state as well as formulating state-level policies aimed at conservation of biodiversity.

In India, there is no particular definition for a protected area; any area that is considered by the central government or state government to be important for conservation is designated a status under the WLPA and is then legally considered a protected area. Until 2002, the WLPA only had two main types of protected areas - national parks and wildlife sanctuaries. An amendment to the Act in 2002 included two more categories - conservation reserves and community reserves. A further amendment in 2006 added another category called the tiger reserve.

2.1 National park: Chapter IV Section 35 (1) of the WLPA

The state government can declare any area a national park if it feels it is of ecological, faunal, floral, geo-morphological, or zoological importance. Following this intention, a process of settlement of rights of communities that reside in such areas is carried out and once all these rights have been settled, acquired, or local communities relocated, the area can be declared a finally notified national park. The most common interpretation of this category is that no human settlement or human access and rights to resources are allowed inside a national park. If a village located geographically inside a national park cannot be relocated then it is legally carved out of the national park boundary. It is important to mention here that no relocation can take place from any protected area without the consent of local people, and without appropriate compensation.

2.1.1 Wildlife sanctuary: Chapter IV Section 18 (1) of the WLPA

The state government may declare any area a wildlife sanctuary if it feels it is of ecological, faunal, floral, geo-morphological, or zoological importance. Following this intention, a process of settlement of rights of communities that reside in such areas is carried out and once all rights have been settled, acquired or local communities relocated, the area can be declared a finally notified sanctuary. Human settlements can be allowed to remain inside a sanctuary and access and rights to resources can also be allowed after a process of settlement of rights.

2.2 Conservation reserve: Section 36A (I) of the WLPA

The state government, after having consultations with local communities, can declare any area owned by the government, particularly areas adjacent to national parks and sanctuaries and those areas which link one protected area with another, as a conservation reserve for protecting landscapes, seascapes, flora and fauna and their habitat. Rights of local inhabitants are not to be impacted in any way whilst creating a conservation reserve. Settlement of rights process not required.

2.3 Community reserve: Section 36C of the WLPA

The state government may declare any private or community land outside a national park, sanctuary or conservation reserve as a community reserve for protecting fauna, flora and traditional or cultural conservation values and practices, where the community or an individual has volunteered to conserve wildlife and its habitat. Rights of local inhabitants are not to be impacted in any way whilst creating a community reserve. No settlement of rights process is required.

2.4 Tiger reserve: Section 38V (4) of the WLPA

Constitution of a core zone and buffer zone: The core zone is also referred to as critical tiger habitat and usually constitutes areas of national parks and sanctuaries where it has been established that such areas need to be kept inviolate for the purpose of tiger conservation. Buffer or peripheral areas surrounding the critical tiger habitat or core areas require less habitat protection. Buffer areas are meant to ensure the integrity of the critical tiger habitat with adequate dispersal for tiger populations.

3.0 The Scheduled Tribes and Other Forest-Dwellers (Recognition of Rights) Act, 2006 (FRA)

Apart from the protected areas mentioned in the WLPA, the Scheduled Tribes and Other Forest-Dwellers (Recognition of Rights) Act, 2006 (FRA) provides for the creation of a stricter category within existing protected areas, called critical wildlife habitat (CWH).

3.1 Section 2(b), Section 4 (2) (a-f) of the FRA

As of November 2014, there are 692 protected areas in India covering 4.83% of the total area of the country. These include 103 national parks, 525 wildlife sanctuaries, 4 community reserves and 60 conservation reserves.

There are also areas that are protected either through other national Acts or under international conventions and treaties. Some of these include:

Biosphere reserves created under UNESCO's Man and Biosphere Programme with the objective of protecting larger landscapes and seascapes surrounding existing protected areas. These areas are considered sustainable use areas.
World heritage sites are areas of universal natural and cultural value, declared under an international Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. This status is usually given to an already designated protected area.
Important bird areas are identified to give special attention to areas that are significant for bird conservation. These areas are identified by Birdlife International, an organisation based in the UK, with the help of national conservation organisations. These areas may or may not be covered under the country's protected area network.
Wetlands of significant biodiversity value can be declared Ramsar sites. These sites are declared under an inter-governmental treaty on wetlands called the Ramsar Convention which was signed by countries at Ramsar, in Iran, in 1971. As of today, 160 countries have signed this convention which provides the framework for national action and international cooperation for the conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources. This is the only inter-governmental treaty that deals with a specific ecosystem. Nineteen wetlands have been declared Ramsar sites in India, covering an area of almost 648,507 hectares.

Medicinal Plant Conservation Areas (MPCAs): The MPCA programme is a national effort initiated in 1993 by the Foundation for Revitalisation of Local Health Traditions (FRLHT), Bangalore. Under this programme, MPCAs are identified with the main objective of conserving medicinal plants in their natural habitat and preserving their gene pool. The programme aims to achieve the following objectives:

Conserve viable populations of prioritised native medicinal plant species in their natural habitat. Conduct studies on biological and ecological aspects of medicinal plants in order to develop appropriate conservation approaches.
Sensitise and enable local communities and resource managers to manage MPCAs for effective conservation. Design and develop strategies and mechanisms for long-term conservation of medicinal plants.
MPCAs are established in different bio-geographic zones and micro climates covering maximum habitat diversity and viable populations of prioritised medicinal plant species available in specific states. These are identified and managed in cooperation with state forest departments and local people.

4.0 Community conserved areas in India

Given above are examples where the Indian government or national and/or international non-government agencies have taken steps towards the conservation of biological diversity. In addition to these, there are thousands of areas in India where communities are either carrying on an age-old practice of regulated use, management of resources and protection of species and habitats or have evolved such systems in recent times for a variety of reasons. Such areas have become known as community conserved areas (CCAs) in India, and indigenous and community conserved areas (ICCAs) internationally. ICCAs have been defined as "natural and/or modified ecosystems containing significant biodiversity values, ecological benefits and cultural values, voluntarily conserved by indigenous peoples and local communities, both sedentary and mobile, through customary laws or other effective means". These include the protection of trees on which migratory and local birds roost and nest, village irrigation tanks being used by wild birds and animals, coastal areas where youth groups are involved in the protection of turtles and their nesting sites, forest areas being used and protected by local people, parts of rivers where no fishing is allowed, and many more.

The range of mechanisms used by communities in CCAs is fascinating. At virtually all sites, the community has come up with rules and regulations, and penalties for anyone violating these. Usually, also, there is a system to protect the area, such as forest protection committees, youth groups, wildlife protection groups, women's committees, even gram sabhas (village assembly) as a whole. Most importantly, strong leadership from within the community, and often a catalytic or supportive role from outside, has been crucial in successful conservation by communities.

CONSERVATION DEFINITIONS

Agrobiodiversity - Includes wild plants closely related to crops (crop wild relatives), cultivated plants (landraces) and livestock varieties. Agrobiodiversity can be an objective of protected areas for crop wild relatives, traditional and threatened landraces, particularly those reliant on traditional cultural practices; and/or traditional and threatened livestock races, especially if they are reliant on traditional cultural management systems that are compatible with “wild biodiversity”.

Biological diversity - The variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems.

Biome - A major portion of the living environment of a particular region (such as a fir forest or grassland), characterized by its distinctive vegetation and maintained largely by local climatic conditions.

Buffer zone - Areas between core protected areas and the surrounding landscape or seascape which protect the network from potentially damaging external influences and which are essentially transitional areas.

Community Conserved Area - Natural and modified ecosystems, including significant biodiversity, ecological services and cultural values, voluntarily conserved by indigenous peoples and local and mobile communities through customary laws or other effective means.

Corridor Way - To maintain vital ecological or environmental connectivity by maintaining physical linkages between core areas.

Ecosystem - A dynamic complex of plant, animal and micro-organism communities and their non-living environment interacting as a functional unit.

Ecosystem services - The benefits people obtain from ecosystems. These include provisioning services such as food and water; regulating services such as regulation of floods, drought, land degradation, and disease; supporting services such as soil formation and nutrient cycling; and cultural services such as recreational, spiritual, religious and other non-material benefits.

Geodiversity - The diversity of minerals, rocks (whether “solid” or ”drift”), fossils, landforms, sediments and soils, together with the natural processes that constitute the topography, landscape and the underlying structure of the Earth.

In-situ conservation - The conservation of ecosystems and natural habitats and the maintenance and recovery of viable populations of species in their natural surroundings and, in the case of domesticated or cultivated species, in the surroundings where they have developed their distinctive properties.

Indigenous and tribal people - (a) Tribal peoples in independent countries whose social, cultural and economic conditions distinguish them from other sections of the national community, and whose status is regulated holly or partially by their own customs or traditions or by special laws or regulations; (b) Peoples in independent countries who are regarded as indigenous on account of their descent from the populations which inhabited the country, or a geographical region to which the country belongs, at the time of conquest or colonization or the establishment of present State boundaries and who, irrespective of their legal status, retain some or all of their own social, economic, cultural and political institutions.

Sacred site - An area of special spiritual significance to peoples and communities.

Sacred natural site - Areas of land or water having special spiritual significance to peoples and communities.

Sustainable use - The use of components of biological diversity in a way and at a rate that does not lead to the long-term decline of biological diversity, thereby maintaining its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of present and future generations. (This definition from the CBD is specific to sustainable use as it relates to biodiversity).

Since these sites are not officially recognised sites, and often happen informally at many places, it is difficult to estimate a number for them. However, there are likely to be thousands of such sites still existing and new ones being established by rural and urban people all over India. A document published in 2009 had details on about 150 such sites from across India and listed nearly 300 about which much information could not be gathered. Subsequently, many more examples have come to light. One of the largest protected areas is Khonoma Tragopan and Wildlife Sanctuary, spread over 20 sq km, where hunting and resource extraction is completely prohibited. In another 50 sq km surrounding the area, minimal resource use for home requirement only is allowed. The village has also declared a total ban on any kind of hunting over the village's entire 125 sq km area; recently, seasonal and need-based hunting has been allowed.

In Bongaigaon district of Assam, the villagers of Shankar Ghola are protecting a few hundred hectares of forest which contain, among other things, a troupe of the highly endangered golden langur. At Khichan village (Rajasthan), villagers provide safety and food to wintering populations of demoiselle cranes which flock there in huge numbers of up to 10,000 birds. Several lakh rupees are spent by the residents on this, without a grudge or a grumble.

In Goa, Kerala and Orissa, important nesting sites for sea turtles such as Galjibag and Rushikulya beaches have been protected through the action of local fisherfolk. Of the 2,240 sq km stretch of the Gori Ganga river basin in the upper mountains of Kumaon, 1,439 sq km is under the management of village van panchayats. This area forms an important corridor between the Nandadevi Biosphere Reserve and the Askot Wildlife Sanctuary which are critically important for highland biodiversity. In addition to conservation initiatives such as the ones mentioned in the box, there are also countless instances of natural ecosystems and wildlife populations having been saved by local communities from certain destruction.

As examples, several big dams that would have submerged huge areas of forest or other ecosystems have been stopped by people's movements. This includes proposed dams like the Bhopalpatnam-Ichhampalli in Maharashtra and Chhattisgarh, which would have submerged a major part of the Indravati Tiger Reserve, Bodhghat in Chhattisgarh, and Rathong Chu in Sikkim. Many such movements have saved areas that are equal in size, if not sometimes bigger, than official protected areas.

Quite a few sites conserved by communities have been recognised to be of such wildlife value that they have been declared wildlife sanctuaries or national parks by state governments. In Punjab, lands belonging to the Bishnoi, with considerable blackbuck and chinkara populations, have been declared the Abohar Sanctuary. Likewise, several heronries in southern India, such as Nellapattu, Vedanthangal and Chittarangudi, are now wildlife sanctuaries.

4.1 Continued decline in biodiversity

All this might suggest that wildlife and their habitats are well protected in our country. This is not the case. The rate of degradation has risen consistently over the last few decades.

There are many reasons for this decline, one of the most important being the conservation policies themselves. These policies have had limited success in arresting biodiversity degradation, and in many cases, have worked against their objective by alienating communities that reside in and around areas which are meant to be conserved or protected. They have done this by not taking into account two very important aspects: firstly, they did not take on board the longstanding conservation traditions and practices of local communities (and thereby lost an opportunity to enhance, support and revive community conserved areas and species); secondly, they ignored the significant economic and cultural dependence of people on ecosystems and species declared protected. The following sections deal with how this has happened.

5.0 History of conventional conservation in India

To be able to properly understand conservation policy in India today, it is important to look at the roots of these policies and laws. Many of the laws we continue to follow were either formulated in colonial times or are based on the same principles and practices that our colonial rulers followed. The colonisation of India by the British in the 19th century brought about a watershed change in both consumption of biodiversity and its conservation. British officers and Indian rulers (who were under their patronage) engaged in extensive hunting for sport. Although Indian society was attuned to hunting for food, this level of hunting was not matched in any phase of Indian history. In addition, the British encouraged the policy of extension of agriculture to be able to maximise taxes from peasants, and the extermination of carnivores that preyed on herbivore species that were preferred for hunting by the elite. Meanwhile, the British also took control (in a process referred to as 'nationalisation') of most forests in India which they needed to earn revenue from timber and other forest produce. And they restricted the use of these forests, grasslands and other areas by local people who they believed were destroying the forests.

The forest department was established in 1865, and the Indian Forest Act came into existence. With this Act, the environment which held tremendous cultural, economic and political value for forest-dwelling communities was now totally under the control of the British. By the early-20th century, the wild animal (particularly mega fauna) population began to decline and with that a new interest group emerged. These were the 'conservationists', mainly rulers and hunters who were concerned about depleting wildlife populations. Most of these people had no connection with the common masses, nor did they understand their needs, knowledge and practices. Local people were largely considered the greatest threat to wildlife populations as they shared the same space and resources as wildlife. To create the first national park, existing villages were shifted out and people on the periphery were no longer allowed to enter the park.

IUCN CATEGORISATION

Strict Nature Reserve: Category Ia are strictly protected areas set aside to protect biodiversity and also possibly geological/geomorphical features, where human visitation, use and impacts are strictly controlled and limited to ensure protection of the conservation values. Such protected areas can serve as indispensable reference areas for scientific research and monitoring
Wilderness Area: Category Ib protected areas are usually large unmodified or slightly modified areas, retaining their natural character and influence without permanent or significant human habitation, which are protected and managed so as to preserve their natural condition.
National Park: Category II protected areas are large natural or near natural areas set aside to protect large-scale ecological processes, along with the complement of species and ecosystems characteristic of the area, which also provide a foundation for environmentally and culturally compatible, spiritual, scientific, educational, recreational, and visitor opportunities.
Natural Monument or Feature: Category III protected areas are set aside to protect a specific natural monument, which can be a landform, sea mount, submarine cavern, geological feature such as a cave or even a living feature such as an ancient grove. They are generally quite small protected areas and often have high visitor value.
Habitat/Species Management Area: Category IV protected areas aim to protect particular species or habitats and management reflects this priority. Many Category IV protected areas will need regular, active interventions to address the requirements of particular species or to maintain habitats, but this is not a requirement of the category.
Protected Landscape/ Seascape: A protected area where the interaction of people and nature over time has produced an area of distinct character with significant, ecological, biological, cultural and scenic value: and where safeguarding the integrity of this interaction is vital to protecting and sustaining the area and its associated nature conservation and other values.
Protected area with sustainable use of natural resources: Category VI protected areas conserve ecosystems and habitats together with associated cultural values and traditional natural resource management systems. They are generally large, with most of the area in a natural condition, where a proportion is under sustainable natural resource management and where low-level non-industrial use of natural resources compatible with nature conservation is seen as one of the main aims of the area.

6.0 Impact of official wildlife conservation policy and practice on people and on conservation

As we have seen, wildlife sanctuaries, national parks and tiger reserves are considered to be three important kinds of protected areas under the Wildlife (Protection) Act (WLPA). While, under the law, certain human activity is allowed in a wildlife sanctuary no human activity is allowed in a national park or a tiger reserve. As of 2011, about 5% of India's territory is covered by protected areas. On the one hand, these areas have saved many ecologically critical areas and threatened wildlife species from being wiped out by dam projects, mining, urban expansion, and agricultural expansion. What is important, however, is that this 5% of area is also inhabited by people, some of them ancient adivasi and tribal communities. Available information indicates that 3-4 million people live inside India's protected areas, most of them belonging to communities that have lived in these areas before the protected areas were notified. All these people (and many millions more who live in regions adjacent to protected areas) are dependent on local resources for fuel, fodder, medicines, non-timber forest produce, fish and other aquatic produce, livelihoods, water, cultural sustenance, and many other critical resources.

Since these people are also now connected to the market economy, cash income, even if the barest minimum, is important to them. In many of these areas, collection of non-timber forest produce contributes to more than 50% of each household's annual cash earnings. Such subsistence or commercial activity is often recorded in government documents as a concession but rarely as a right; many are not even recorded and are hence considered illegal. Because of lack of documentation, many of these people are considered encroachers even though they have lived here for generations.

According to the WLPA, before any protected area is finally notified, a process of settlement of rights must be carried out and livelihoods and habitation rights either allowed or acquired by providing compensation or alternatives. A number of issues (such as badly kept land records, unrecorded rights of people who have inhabited these areas for generations, and the genuine needs of new occupants) have prevented the completion of this process in most protected areas in India.

Because of a Supreme Court order in 1996, many state governments quickly tried to settle these rights without carrying out comprehensive assessments of the rights, thereby depriving thousands of people of their due rights or allowed rights in protected areas. This has led to numerous conflicts on the ground; many are still not accepted by state governments till date.

In some states, efforts have been made towards relocating villages from inside protected areas to other areas. Though a few have been fairly successful, most have caused serious social, cultural and livelihoods disruption among local communities. This has resulted in a lot of discontent and anger among local inhabitants and has invited criticism from citizens' groups. The fate of people living inside protected areas has therefore remained unresolved for over two decades. Living with constant uncertainty, not knowing whether and for how long they will be allowed to stay in the area, and constant harassment over the collection of forest produce, has led to a serious dislike for protected areas among local communities.

In addition to the policies, the attitude of government agencies implementing these policies and lack of interest and vision add to the already complex situation. People's distrust is so strong that there are often conflicts between local communities and forest agencies (responsible for conservation) in community conserved areas where the goals are seemingly identical. For example, when the ecological value of community conserved areas is realised, they are often declared by the government to be protected areas. In some cases, this has helped stave off outside threats, but in many cases it has transferred the responsibility of conservation away from the villagers to government agencies that do not always have the resources or the zeal to carry out their duties. As a result, these areas have suffered neglect and decline. In most cases, the declaration of a sanctuary has led to significant restrictions on local populations, and consequent conflicts. Conflict with these agencies also arises when villagers have been protecting or want to protect areas that the government allocates for industrial or commercial purposes. One of the greatest challenges faced by community conserved areas is that the government does not recognise these efforts and offers very little support. As a result, local communities that can and should be one of the strongest allies in conservation have turned hostile to the concept of conservation as envisaged and implemented by the government.

6.1 Impact of a conflict situation on wildlife and biodiversity

Over the last couple of decades, local communities have begun to organise and empower themselves. Protests against conservation policies in general, and protected areas in particular, are gaining ground. In such situations, there are always political leaders waiting to take advantage of the discontent. Demands for doing away with protected areas, or with unpopular wildlife restrictions, are increasing. Acts of subversion, of deliberate violation of conservation laws, and of quiet collaboration with poachers and timber thieves are already evident. Even with the best of intentions, inadequately staffed and funded forest departments charged with protecting India's wildlife are unable to cope with this situation. The general environment of hostility and mistrust between forest authorities and local people has thus worked not only against the interests of local people but also against the interests of wildlife and biodiversity.

In some situations, the direct ecological impact of this kind of policy can be quite negative. Kumbalgarh Sanctuary in Rajasthan has reportedly been ravaged by fire because the grass has not been cut. On the other hand, other areas of the sanctuary are severely degraded because of unregulated resource use. This suggests that blanket bans do not necessarily make ecological sense. It also shows that all human activity is not necessarily compatible with conservation; on the contrary, many are not.

6.2 Need for political engagement and local dialogue

It is absolutely essential to fully understand local situations and arrive at a solution in participation with everyone concerned, most of all local residents who will be the most impacted. This belief, that conservation and social justice can be best achieved through dialogue and political decentralisation, is steadily gaining momentum both in India and internationally. In this environment, local people's movements (supported by NGOs, civil society groups and others) aimed at regaining control over land and common property have been gaining strength for over four decades now. Human rights groups fighting against injustices against local people are also beginning to talk about local people being politically empowered as well as empowered to protect and conserve their surrounding resources. This essentially means that local people will play a much larger role in decisions related to land and the surrounding natural resources, including how they must be protected.

Social action and human rights groups view the passage of the Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest-Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006 as an important and welcome step towards reversing the historical marginalisation of India's tribal (indigenous) population and other forest-dwellers. The Act mandates the vesting of 14 kinds of rights over forestland and forest produce with two categories of communities: scheduled tribes (ie indigenous people who are listed in a schedule of the Indian Constitution), and other traditional forest-dwellers defined as those who have been living in forests for at least three generations.

7.0 FORESTS IN INDIA

An accurate assessment of forest and tree resources in the country is essential for formulating sound strategy for forestry sector. Precise data and latest information on forest cover and volume of growing stock of forests/trees and trends of changes therein are basic ingredients for policy and planning purposes. FSI has been conducting field inventory for estimating the growing stock (volume) and other parameters of the forests by laying out systematic sample plots since PISFR project began in 1965. So far about 80% of the country's forest areas have been inventoried including some areas more than once and about 140 reports have been published.

7.1 Assessing the forest cover

A methodology has been developed for a comprehensive assessment of forest resources inside and outside forest areas at national level by stratifying the country into physiographic zones and to take a sample of 10 percent districts for detailed inventory during a cycle of two years. This information, thus generated, will form a part of the biennial State of Forest Report. These estimates will be further improved in the subsequent reports as another set of 10 percent districts are sampled and surveyed, and so on. Together with forest inventory, assessment of herbs & shrubs (vegetation survey) is being carried out. In addition, assessment of regeneration status, biodiversity indices and soil carbon in forest areas are being carried out.

The country is stratified into 14 physiographic zones according to tree species composition and other physiographic and ecological parameters. In strata, districts are considered first sampling units and grids as secondary sampling units. Ten percent of districts are being inventoried every year.

1 : 50,000 scale Survey of India toposheet is divided into 36 grids further divided into 4 sub-grids, forming the basic sampling units. Two of these sub-grids are randomly selected and corresponding sub-grids in all the grids are selected to form the sample. The intersection of diagonals of such sub-grids are marked as center of plot on the map. At the center of selected subgrid a plot of 0.1 ha area is laid out in each such grid and data are collected from the plots falling in forest area only.
For collecting data on soil, forest floor (humus & litter carbon), sub-plots of 1m x 1m are laid at each corner within the 0.1 ha plot.
The data regarding herbs and shrubs (including regeneration) are collected from four square plots of 1m x 1m and 3m x 3m respectively. These plots are laid out at 30 meters from the centre of 0.1 ha plot in all four directions along diagonals in non-hilly area and along trails in hilly areas.

Data is collected from randomly selected sample plots.

7.2 International Day of Forests - 21 March

21 March is celebrated as International Day of Forests every year world over. This celebration brings to focus the role of forests in safeguarding the ecological security & livelihood of millions of people all around the world. Forests provide clean air, water and energy. Sustainably managed forests can provide renewable and carbon neutral energy for a greener future. Year 2019's theme of the International day of Forests was "Forests & Education".

This theme was chosen by the United Nations to highlight how understanding our forests and keeping them healthy is crucial for our future as forests help to keep air, soil, water and people healthy. They have a vital role to play in some of the biggest challenges we face today, such as addressing climate change, eliminating hunger and keeping urban and rural communities sustainable. Forests will be more important than ever as the world population climbs to 8.5 billion by 2030. Investing in forestry education can change the human life better. Women and men should have equal access to forest education. Both modern and traditional knowledge are key to keeping forests healthy.

8.0 IUCN WORLD ISSUES

8.1 Governing Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction

Nearly two-thirds of the world’s ocean lies in areas beyond national jurisdiction (ABNJ), which are home to unique species and ecosystems
Fragmented legal frameworks leave biodiversity in ABNJ vulnerable to growing threats
The degradation of biodiversity in ABNJ affects the ocean’s capacity to provide resources necessary for human survival
Negotiations are underway to create a new international instrument under the UN Convention on the Law, which would help close the existing ABNJ governance gap
A new international instrument can provide a global framework for marine protected areas in ABNJ, ensure states assess impacts of potentially harmful activities, and facilitate inclusive scientific research that enables the equitable sharing of benefits from marine genetic resources.

Nearly two-thirds of the world’s ocean is beyond national jurisdiction – where no single state has authority. This area reaches depths of over 10 km and represents 95% of the Earth’s total habitat by volume. Areas beyond national jurisdiction (ABNJ) are home to significant biodiversity, including unique species that have evolved to survive extreme heat, cold, salinity, pressure and darkness.

Less than 0.0001 percent of this immense area has been explored, but there is evidence that ecosystems and species in ABNJ have become seriously degraded because of human activities. There is no comprehensive global framework for the conservation and sustainable use of marine areas beyond national jurisdiction to halt and prevent further degradation from human activities. The UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) provides an international legal regime that governs the ocean. It creates an obligation to conserve the marine environment, but it does not provide specific mechanisms or processes for conserving marine biodiversity in ABNJ. Other legal instruments address parts of the problem, such as unsustainable fishing or pollution from ships, or specific geographical areas, such as the Antarctic.

Negotiations are underway to create an Implementing Agreement to UNCLOS, which would help close the existing ABNJ governance gap and ensure the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity in these areas.

Why is this important? Scientists caution that failure to take swift and effective action to address threats to biodiversity in ABNJ could compromise the ocean’s capacity to provide resources and services necessary for human survival.

8.2 Natural World Heritage

Natural World Heritage sites are globally recognised as the most significant protected areas on Earth
These sites provide life-supporting benefits to millions of people – 90% of sites provide jobs, two-thirds are crucial sources of water and about half help prevent natural disasters such as floods or landslides
Natural World Heritage sites are under increasing pressure from climate change, infrastructure development, mining, poaching and other threats
To protect sites from threats, investment in their protection and management is urgently needed. Closely monitoring the status of sites, World Heritage-specific biodiversity targets, and adopting IUCN Green List standards for site management can also help
These sites are a litmus test for our ability as a conservation community to protect biodiversity and pass on nature’s treasures to the next generation

What is the issue? One in five (23%) sites on the UNESCO World Heritage List are natural sites, most often protected areas such as national parks or nature reserves. Natural World Heritage sites are globally recognised as the planet’s most significant protected areas. There are 247 natural World Heritage sites around the globe, including iconic places such as Australia’s Great Barrier Reef, Yellowstone National Park in the United States, Virunga National Park in the Democratic Republic of the Congo or the Tropical Rainforest Heritage of Sumatra in Indonesia. Natural World Heritage sites account for 7% of the total surface covered by all 230,000+ protected areas worldwide.

Almost every country has signed the World Heritage Convention, committing to the best level of protection for these sites. Yet natural World Heritage sites are under increasing pressure. Invasive species, climate change and the negative impacts of tourism are currently the three most significant threats to natural World Heritage, according to the IUCN World Heritage Outlook, the first ever assessment of all listed natural sites. Climate change is the fastest growing threat to natural World Heritage, with the number of sites highly threatened by climate change almost doubling in the three years between 2014 and 2017. Coral reefs and glaciers are among the most affected ecosystems. In 2016, up to 85% of all reefs surveyed had been impacted by climate change. The Great Barrier Reef, the largest reef on Earth, has suffered widespread bleaching due to the increase in global sea surface temperature. Retreating glaciers threaten the very reason why Tanzania’s Kilimanjaro National Park, home to Africa’s highest peak, is on the World Heritage List. Climate change is also by far the largest potential threat to natural World Heritage, meaning more sites will likely suffer impacts in the near future.

Pressure from development such as the construction of roads, dams, tourism facilities, mining and oil and gas projects is among the top potential threats. For instance, Bangladesh's Sundarbans, a vast mangrove forest home to the royal Bengal tiger, could be severely altered by impacts of the Rampal coal-fired power plant proposed near the site. Sadly, in 2017, fewer than half (48%) of the sites were assessed as having effective protection and management, down from 54% in 2014. Lack of guarantee for long-term finance is the most challenging aspect of protection and management – an issue assessed as being of concern for 118 natural World Heritage sites.

Why is this important? Natural World Heritage sites provide crucial habitats to many iconic species, as well as protect rare ecological processes and stunning landscapes. They also contribute to economies, climate stability and human well-being. Two-thirds of natural sites on the World Heritage List are crucial sources of water, and about half help prevent natural disasters such as floods or landslides. Over 90% of listed natural sites create jobs and provide income from tourism and recreation. Forests found in World Heritage sites across the tropical regions store an estimated 5.7 billion tons of carbon – higher forest biomass carbon density on average than the remaining protected area network.

8.3 Deep-Sea Mining

Deep-sea mining is the process of retrieving mineral deposits from the deep sea – the area of the ocean below 200 m
Depleting terrestrial deposits and rising demand for metals are stimulating interest in the deep sea, with commercial mining imminent
The scraping of the sea floor and pollution from mining processes can wipe out entire species – many yet to be discovered
Environmental impact assessments, effective regulation and mitigation strategies are needed to limit the impacts of deep-sea mining
Comprehensive baseline studies are needed to improve our understanding of the deep sea

Deep-sea mining is the process of retrieving mineral deposits from the deep sea – the area of the ocean below 200 m which covers about 65% of the Earth’s surface. There is growing interest in the mineral deposits of the deep sea. This is largely due to depleting terrestrial deposits for metals such as copper, nickel, aluminium, manganese, zinc, lithium and cobalt, coupled with rising demand for these metals to produce high-tech applications such as smartphones and green technologies such as wind turbines, solar panels and electric storage batteries.

So far, the focus has been on exploring the deep sea – assessing the size and extent of mineral deposits. By May 2018, the International Seabed Authority (ISA) – which regulates activities in areas beyond national jurisdiction – had issued 29 contracts for the exploration of deep-sea mineral deposits. More than 1.5 million km2 of international seabed – roughly the size of Mongolia – have been set aside for mineral exploration in the Pacific and Indian oceans, and along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. But exploration may soon give way to exploitation. Commercial mining in national waters of Papua New Guinea is predicted to begin by 2020. Mining in international waters is expected to commence in 2025.

Why is this important? The seafloor contains an extensive array of geological features. These include abyssal plains 3,500–6,500 m below the sea surface, volcanic underwater mountains known as seamounts, hydrothermal vents with bursting water heated by volcanic activity, and deep trenches such as the Mariana Trench, which at almost 11,000 m is the greatest depth registered in the ocean. These remote areas support species that are uniquely adapted to harsh conditions such as lack of sunlight and high pressure. Many of these species are unknown to science. As the deep sea remains understudied and poorly understood, there are many gaps in our understanding of its biodiversity and ecosystems. This makes it difficult to thoroughly assess the potential impacts of deep-sea mining and to put in place adequate safeguards to protect the marine environment.

Pollution - Species such as whales, tuna and sharks could be affected by noise, vibrations and light pollution caused by mining equipment and surface vessels, as well as potential leaks and spills of fuel and toxic products.

Mitigation - Current technologies may not be sufficient to avoid serious and lasting harm to the environment, including the loss of biodiversity. Mining operations strategies will need to prioritise the avoidance of environmental impacts.

Circular economy - The repair, recycling and reuse of products should be encouraged to help reduce the demand for raw materials from the deep sea.

9.0 WORLD WETLANDS DAY 2019 - 02 FEBRUARY

The World Wetlands Day 2019 was celebrated with the theme ‘Wetlands and Climate Change’.

Water is life, and wetlands are the life support systems that ensure functioning of water cycle. India is endowed by a rich diversity of wetlands ranging from high altitude wetlands of Himalayas, floodplains of mighty rivers as Ganges and Brahmaputra, lagoons and mangrove marshes on the coastline and reefs in the marine environments. As per National Wetland Atlas, nearly 4.7% of India’s geographical area is under wetlands.

Wetlands are vital for our water and food security. As ‘kidneys of landscape’, wetlands receive flows of water and waste from upstream sources. They help stabilize water supplies, cleanse polluted waters, protect shorelines, and recharge groundwater aquifers. The extensive food chain and biological diversity in wetlands make them ‘biological supermarkets’. Wetlands are valuable as sources, sink and transformers of a multitude of biological, chemical and genetic material. In addition, wetlands have special attributes as cultural heritage of humanity, and have deep connections with our beliefs and practices. They are indeed an important part of our natural wealth and “liquid assets”.

9.1 Ramsar Convention

The Convention on Wetlands, called the Ramsar Convention, is an intergovernmental treaty that provides the framework for national action and international cooperation for the conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources. The Convention was adopted in 1971 at the Iranian City of Ramsar. Contracting Parties to the Convention commit to designating wetlands into the List of Wetlands of International Importance (as per 8 criteria set by the Convention), and wise use of all wetlands in their territory. As on date, the Convention has 170 Contracting Parties, who have designated 2,339 Ramsar Sites covering an area more than 252 million hectare, making it one of the world’s largest protected area network. India became a party to the Convention in 1982, and as on date has designated 26 wetlands as Ramsar Sites under the 9 designation criteria of the Convention.

The ‘wise use’ approach of Ramsar Convention is globally recognized. Notably, the wise use approach was coined in 1972, much before the hallmark 1992 Rio Conference wherein the term sustainable development was rendered a definition. As endorsed by Contracting Parties of the Ramsar Convention, wise use of wetlands is “the maintenance of their ecological character, achieved through the implementation of ecosystem approaches, within the context of sustainable development”. The wise use approach recognizes that stemming wetland loss and degradation requires incorporation of linkages between people and wetlands, and thereby emphasizes that human use of these ecosystems on sustainable basis is compatible with conservation.

Second February of each year is celebrated as World Wetlands Day to mark the date of adoption of Ramsar Convention on Wetlands. The Convention is the only multilateral environmental agreement to date for conservation and wise use of wetlands. The World Wetland Day is being organized to raise awareness on the values wetlands have for nature and society. Each year, the World Wetlands Day is attached to a specific theme. The 2019 theme ‘Wetlands and Climate Change’ has been chosen to initiate actions against the drainage of wetlands.

Wetlands are valuable as sources, sink and transformers of a multitude of biological, chemical and genetic material. Wetlands play an important role in reducing the impact of extreme weather events such as floods, droughts and cyclones. Wetlands act as a natural sponge, absorbing and storing excess rainfall and reducing flooding. During the dry season, they release the water stored, delaying the onset of droughts and reducing water shortages.

The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, as the nodal Ministry for wetlands conservation have been assisting State Governments since 1985 in design and implementation of integrated management plans. Financial assistance has been provided to State Governments for implementation of management plans for 180 wetlands. In 2017, the Ministry has also notified the Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules as the regulatory framework for wetlands in the country. Several states have also notified wetland authorities and acts and rules for conservation and wise-use of wetlands.

Under the capacity building programme of National Plan for Conservation of Aquatic Eco-system (NPCA) scheme, regional workshops, training programs are organized for imparting training to the wetland managers involved in the conservation and management of wetlands and lakes in the country. World Wetlands Day is observed on 2nd February each year to raise awareness among all sections of the society about values and functions of wetlands and wise-use of their resources.

Wildlife and National Parks