UPSC IAS exam preparation - Indian Agriculture and related issues - Lecture 1

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Crops and cropping patterns in India - Part 1

[हिंदी में पढ़ें ]

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1.0 Basic concepts and definitions

Worldwide, more than half the human population is involved in agriculture growing crops, fruits, vegetables, flowers and rearing of livestock. In India, more than 60% people are still dependent on agriculture. We will now see some basic concepts and definitions. A detailed study of crops and cropping patterns in India will then follow.

Although more than 50,000 plants in the world are edible, only a few hundred are consumed in significant amounts. Ninety percent of the world's food energy intake comes from a mere 15 crops with rice, corn and wheat contributing two-thirds of this. These three are the staples of more than 500 crore people, with rice being consumed by almost one-half of the world population.

1.1 Three types of human activities

Human economic activities are of three types - Primary, Secondary and Tertiary. Primary activities are those connected with extraction and production of natural resources, for example agriculture, fishing, horticulture and gathering. Secondary activities are concerned with the processing of these resources, for example cloth-weaving, steel-manufacturing or food-processing. Tertiary activities provide services to the primary and secondary sectors, for example banking and insurance, trade and transport, advertising and marketing etc.

1.2 Arable land 

Any land on which crops can be grown due to favourable soil topography and climate is Arable land. The root is Latin arabilis = able to be plowed. Thus, farmlands and pasture lands are different. The FAO states that "Arable land is the land under temporary agricultural crops (multiple-cropped areas counted only once), temporary meadows for mowing or pasture, land under market and kitchen gardens and land temporarily fallow (less than five years). The abandoned land resulting from shifting cultivation is not included. Data for 'Arable land' are not meant to indicate the amount of land that is potentially cultivable." 

1.3 Agricultural land (% of land area)

Agricultural land refers to the share of land area that is arable, under permanent crops, and under permanent pastures. Land under permanent crops is land cultivated with crops that occupy the land for long periods and need not be replanted after each harvest, such as cocoa, coffee, and rubber. This category includes land under flowering shrubs, fruit trees, nut trees, and vines, but excludes land under trees grown for wood or timber. Permanent pasture is land used for five or more years for forage, including natural and cultivated crops.

1.4 Terminologies

Agriculture - The process of cultivating crops on the soil, raising them and rearing livestock. Agriculture is also called farming or husbandry. In the broadest sense, we can say that "Agriculture is the cultivation of plants, animals, fungi and other life forms for food, fiber, biofuel and other products for human life."

Horticulture - Growing vegetables, flowers and fruits for commercial use on a big scale.

Pisciculture - Breeding of fish in specially constructed tanks and ponds for commercial sale.

Sericulture - Commercial rearing of silk worms, to harvest the silk for textiles. 

Viticulture - Cultivation of grapes for direct sale or vineyards.

Crops versus Weeds - An agriculture crop is a plant that is useful to mankind. It can be an agronomic crop, a horticultural crop, or food crops or non-food crops etc. A weed is a plant that is not useful where it grows.

Kharif Crops - It is the summer crop or monsoon crop in India. Sown with the beginning of the first rains in July during the south-west monsoon season. They are harvested during October-November. Examples - Paddy (Rice), Millets (Bajra and Jowar), Maize, Mung bean (pulses), Groundnut, Red Chillies, Cotton, Soyabean, Sugarcane, Turmeric, Urad bean etc.

Rabi Crops - It is the spring harvest or winter crop in India. Sown in winter (end October) and harvested in spring (March, April). Examples - Wheat, Barley, Mustard, Gram, Sesame, Peas, Sunflower, Coriander, Tomato, Onion, Potato, Oat etc.

Zaid Crop - This crop is grown in some parts of country during March to June. Examples - Watermelon, Muskmelon, Bitter gourd, Pumpkin, Cucumber etc.

Cash Crops - These are crops grown (managed-harvested-sold) for cash rather than sustenance. They can be grown for grains, fruits, flowers, foliage, stems, roots, latex or can be processed into fiber, rubber, sugar or biofuel. Examples - all that can be sold directly like tropical crops (cassava, cocoa, sugarcane, tea, coffee, rubber, coconut, oil palm, banana, pineapple) or temperate crops (corn, wheat, soyabean, some vegetables and herbs etc.).

Sustenance Crops - These are grown for the farmer and his family's sustenance, and for animal feedstock, rather than marketing. Examples - Staple crops like Rice, Corn, Roots and Tuber crops and Pulses. However, a lot of sustenance crops are now marketed also, for example Rice and Wheat. Then it becomes a cash crop too.

Staple Crops - These are plants grown for their parts which are used as staple food. Staple food means the food that is consumed regularly in large quantities and becomes the basic nutrition and energy supplier. Examples - Starchy staples like cereal crops (barley, corn, oat, rice, rye, sorghum etc.), root and tuber crops (cassava, potato, yam, arrowroot etc.), fruit crops (banana, plantain, breadfruit etc.) and palms (sago palm, sweet plam etc.); Protein-rich staples like pulses (chickpea, lentils, soyabeans, pea etc.).

Export Crops - When crops are grown largely for exports

Industrial Crops - When crops become the raw material to be sold to industrial processors. Examples -  to produce industrial oil, biofuels, rubber, aromatic compounds, dye etc.

Plantation Crops - Crops grown in large land tracts under intensive cultivation, and then exported.

High-value Crops - Crops grown for high prices in local and foreign markets, to be used for food, beverage and other products.

Agronomic Crops - End consumers are humans and animals, and aesthetics are not important. Harvested in mature state, they offer high calories and low vitamins and minerals. Grown in fields, pastures, range, forests or plantations. Very few of these are perennials. Examples - Cereal crops, pulses, oilseeds, forage crops, sugar crops, root and tuber crops.

Horticultural Crops - End consumers are humans, and hence aesthetics are important. Harvested at different stages, they offer low calories and high vitamins and minerals. Grown in gardens, orchards, groves, vineyards, nurseries, plantations. Examples - vegetables, fruits, edible nuts, aromatic crops, medicinal crops, ornamental crops.

Covercrops - These can be either annual, biennial, or perennial plants. They are grown as a sole crop or mixed. In addition to their usage for erosion control, they help regulate soil temperature, suppress weed growth, reduce pests and diseases, minimize loss of water from the ground through evaporation, enhance soil fertility, add organic matter to the soil, improve soil aeration, and promote high water infiltration. Examples - Green Manures, Catch Crops, Living Mulches, Pasture and Forage Crop, Legumes etc.

Green Manures - These are cover crops that are incorporated with the soil by plowing and other means of cultivation while they are still green or soon after the flowering stage, for the main purpose of soil improvement. Examples - grain legumes cowpea and mungbean after rice. Green manures are capable of adding organic matter to the soil comparable to 9 to 13 tons per acre of farm manure! Leguminous plants improve soil fertility.

Catch Crops - These are cover crops which are grown after harvest of a main crop to utilize residual resources like soil moisture and fertilizers and to reduce nutrient leaching. Both cowpea and mungbean become catch crops if they are allowed to mature and harvested for pods. Other Examples - (After rice) melons, garlic, tomato and many vegetables

Living Mulches - Those crops grown and maintained alive simultaneously with any cash crop, primarily to prevent rapid loss of water from the soil through evaporation. Examples - Grass plants like Bermuda grass and carabao grass under coconut, oil palm and in many orchards and vineyards. For rapid establishment of living mulches, leguminous vine plants are seeded.

Pasture and Forage Crop - Those grown to be used as feed to livestock through pasturage, soilage, silage or haying. These can be either grass alone, leguminous crops, or mixed grass-legume crops. These crops are ideal in mixed crop-livestock integrated farming system. Common pasture crops in perennial crop farms integrated with ruminant animals are Bermuda grass, carabao grass, stargrass (Cynodon plectostachyus) and many leguminous vines.

2.0 The history of agriculture

The origin of agriculture was a key macro-evolutionary leap in the history of human societies and economies. It changed the relationship between human groups and a select number of domesticated species. Plant cultivation led to a sedentary lifestyle. Plants underwent a lot of changes as they were domesticated. Parallel patterns emerged in domestication across different regions like China and India. Another point of view was that agriculture originated from Middle East (Near East) and spread everywhere. The long-term impact of agricultural origins has created sedentism, reliance on a quite limited range domesticated food stuffs, and a diversification of material technologies, including ceramics early on and other materials such as metals, subsequently.  

India has always been an agricultural country, and in its modern history, the trend can be seen in the graph below. Despite all the drawbacks, India's performance in world agriculture statistics tables is exemplary, as we will see soon.

2.1 Pointers for history of agriculture in India

• Agriculture in India dates to 9000 BCE (11000 years from present). The first domesticated plants were wheat, barley and jujubes. The first domesticated animals were goats and sheep.
• From 5000 BCE (7000 years from present), cotton cultivation began. This development led to greater prosperity and contributed to the creation of later day civilizations in the subcontinent.
• Around 200 BCE, the Tamil region witnessed agriculture of crops like rice, sugarcane, black pepper, coconuts etc.
• India became the hub of world spice trade, and cinnamon and black paper were traded with the peoples of the Mediterranean region.
• Various regions gradually specialized in different crops. Gujarat led with rice, and north and central India led with wheat.
• The British Raj in India led to overall deterioration of native agriculture, and the exploitative policies created mass famines, in which millions perished.
• Post 1947, concerted efforts over many decades led to the massive success of the first Green Revolution, and foodgrain production grew to levels of self-sufficiency. 
• Some of these measures were -

1. Land reforms including the abolition of the Zamindari system
2. Consolidation of small landholdings (though not successful)
3. New crops introduced in many regions (like rice in traditional wheat-grower Punjab)
4. High yielding seeds varieties developed
5. Electricity provided to remotest corners (though wrong pricing policies created the problem of micro self irrigation, and consequent depletion of water tables)
6. Various institutional marketing and credit efforts for farmers
   

• Today, agriculture employs the maximum number of Indians directly and indirectly, and contributes to a significant part of the overall gross value added and the GDP of the nation.

3.0 Agricultural land and types

India has one of the highest percentage of land used for agricultural purposes. Both these images explain it.

Thus, agriculture for India becomes important by the sheer fact that a bulk of our land is used for it.

3.1 The process of agriculture 

Agriculture involves these steps Þ  Inputs + Processes = Outputs

Inputs = Human inputs + Physical inputs

Human inputs - Storage,  labour, machinery, chemicals, seeds, irrigation

Physical inputs - Rainfall, sunshine, temperature, soil type, topography

Processes = Cleaning, Ploughing, Sowing, Spraying, Harvesting

Outputs = Crops

3.2 Types of Farming

Depending on variation in basic factors like climate conditions, availability of capital and labour and demand for output, farming is basically of two types - 

1. Subsistence farming and 
2. Commercial farming. 

• Subsistence Farming - The farming family is devoid of capital and technological knowhow. They may have a very small landholding or none at all, and they belong to the bottom of the social pyramid. Hence, they farm to meet their own needs. So, low levels of technology and household labour are used to produce on small output. If the farming family is using extremely basic techniques, then they are usually involved in primitive subsistence farming. They will either do shifting cultivation or nomadic herding. In shifting cultivation, a plot of land is cleared by removing all trees and burning them. The ashes are mixed with the soil to raise its nutrient level and crops like potatoes, maize, yam, potatoes and cassava are grown. After the soil loses its fertility, the family loses interest and the land is abandoned. A new plot is found and the cycle restarts. Shifting cultivation is hence also known as 'slash and burn' agriculture. It is found in the thickly forested areas of Amazon basin, tropical Africa, parts of southeast Asia and northeast India. These are the areas of heavy rainfall and quick regeneration of vegetation (which explains the pattern of farming used). Nomadic herding is practised in the semi-arid and arid regions of Sahara, Central Asia and some parts of India, like Rajasthan and Jammu and Kashmir. Herdsmen (and families) move around with their animals for fodder and water. Over years, they develop  defined routes, driven by climate and landforms. Animals used are typically sheep, camel, yak and goats. They provide milk, meat, wool, hides and other products. In intensive subsistence agriculture the farmer (family) cultivates a small plot of land using simple tools and a lot of family labour. An ideal climate is one with large number of days full of sunshine and fertile soils. These will help growing of more than one crop annually on the same plot. Usually, rice is the main crop, while wheat, maize, pulses and oilseeds can also be grown. This intensive subsistence agriculture is found in the thickly populated areas of the monsoon regions of south, southeast and east Asia. In Extensive Subsistence Agriculture the farmer (family) cultivates a large area of land with minimal labour input per unit area. Production is low.   

• Commercial Farming - In commercial farming, market forces dictate the entire agriculture cycle. Hence, economy of scale is of paramount importance. So, large infusion of capital, machinery and land is used. Crops are grown and animals are reared for sale in market. Commercial farming can be of three types - (a) Commercial grain farming, (b) Mixed farming and (b) Plantation agriculture. In commercial grain farming crops like wheat and maize are grown for commercial purpose. The legal policy environment must allow it, and overall population must be low enough for the land to be available in bulk. Examples are the temperate grasslands of North America, Europe and Asia. Here, the populations are low, and large farms are spread over hundreds or thousands of hectares. Due to winters, growing season is small and usually only a single crop can be grown. India does not allow commercial farming corporate.  In mixed farming, both agriculture and animal rearing is done together. The land is used for growing food and fodder crops and rearing livestock. Examples are farms in Europe, eastern USA, Argentina, southeast Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. Plantations are a type of commercial farming where a single crop of tea, coffee, sugarcane, cashew, rubber, banana or cotton are grown. Since they are huge, large amounts of labour and capital are required. The output is then processed, either on the farm or elsewhere. Examples are in the tropical regions of the world like tea in India, rubber in Malaysia, coffee in Brazil, tea in Sri Lanka etc.

4.0 Agriculture in India

4.1 Basic facts

At 184.3 million hectares, India holds the second largest agricultural cultivated land in the world. India’s total land area  is 328.7 m ha (32 lac km2). With 20 agri-climatic regions, all 15 major climates in the world exist in India. India is the largest producer of spices, pulses, milk, tea, cashew and jute; and the second largest producer of wheat, rice, fruits and vegetables, sugarcane, cotton and oilseeds. Further, India is second in global production of fruits and vegetables, and is the largest producer of mango and banana. It also has the highest productivity of grapes in the world. 

Total food grains production in India reached 252 million tonnes (MT) in FY15. Rice and wheat production in the country stood at 105 MT and 86 MT, respectively. Overall production was at a record high of 265 MT in 2013-14. It is likely to be quite healthy for FY 16 too. India is among the 15 leading exporters of agricultural products in the world. 

As per estimates by the Central Statistics Office (CSO), the share of agriculture and allied sectors (including agriculture, livestock, forestry and fishery) was 15.35 per cent of the Gross Value Added (GVA) during 2015-16 at 2011-12 prices. 

The Department of Agriculture and Cooperation under the Ministry of Agriculture is responsible for the development of the agriculture sector in India. It manages several other bodies, such as the National Dairy Development Board (NDDB), to develop other allied agricultural sectors.

Over the recent past, multiple factors have worked together to facilitate growth in the agriculture sector in India. These include growth in household income and consumption, expansion in the food processing sector and increase in agricultural exports. Rising private participation in Indian agriculture, growing organic farming and use of information technology are some of the key trends.

To summarise 

1. India is the largest producer of milk, pulses, livestock, jute, tea and cauliflower. (In addition, India ranks global first in production of Anise, Fresh fruit, Badian, Fennel, Tropical fresh fruit, Coriander, Pigeon peas, Spices, Castor oil seed, Millets, Safflower seeds, Sesame seeds, Limes, Lemons, Dry chillies and peppers, Cashew nuts, Chickpeas, Ginger, Okra, Guavas, Turmeric, Goat milk, Mangoes, Meat)
2. India is among the world's top 5 for key foodgrains like rice, wheat, pulses etc.
3. India is the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables. It produces 50% of world's mangoes, and most of world's bananas.

Globally, major wheat exporters are Argentina, Australia, Canada, the EU, Kazakhstan, Russian Federation, Ukraine and the United States. Major coarse grain exporters are Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, the EU, Russian Federation, Ukraine and the United States. Major rice exporters are India, Pakistan, Thailand, the United States, and Viet Nam. 

4.2 Agricultural census in India

Land is used for agriculture, for growing forests, for grazing animals, for mining, for installing industries and for construction of houses, roads, railways, etc. For sustainable development and prosperity of any country, the proper and wise use of the land is required. The land use depends on the kind of land, its depth, fertility, water retention capacity, available mineral contents, and means of transportation, etc. The use of land for agriculture depends on soil type, irrigation facilities, and climate.  

In India, of the total 32.8 lakh sq km area, about 51.09% of the land is under cultivation, 21.81% under forest and 3.92% under pasture. Built up areas and uncultivated land occupy about 12.34%. About 5.17% of the total land is uncultivated waste, which can be converted into agricultural land. The other types of land comprises upto 4.67%.  

Agriculture Census in India is conducted at five yearly intervals for collection of information about structural aspects of agricultural holdings in the country. It counts the 'Operational Holdings'. The concept of agricultural operational holdings does not include those holdings which are not operating any agricultural land and are engaged exclusively in livestock, poultry and fishing etc. The reference year for the present Census was Agriculture Year 2010-11 (July-June). Report was released in 2015. (Read more at http://agcensus.nic.in/ )

• Hectare is 2.47 acre & 1 acre is 4046 Sq.mtr.

Key learnings were -

• Total number of operational holdings was estimated as 138.35 million. 
• The total operated area was 159.59 million hectare. 
• The average size of the holding has been estimated as 1.15 hectare. The average size of holdings has shown a steady declining trend over various Agriculture Censuses since 1970-71.
• The number of agricultural operational holdings in the country has seen a steady increase over the years. From 115.58 million operational holdings in 1995-96, this number has increased to 138.35 million operational holdings in 2010-11, an increase of 20% over 16 years.
• The average size of land holding has been continuously decreasing on account of increasing number of land holdings From an average of 1.41 hectares in 1995-96, it went down to 1.15 hectares in 2010-11, a decrease of 18%.
• On the basis of operated area, operational holdings in Agriculture Census are categorized as -

• The percentage of marginal holdings has gone up from 62.9% in 2000-01 to 67.1% in 2010-11. 
• The percentage of large holdings has gone down from 1% in 2000-01 to 0.7% in 2010-11. 
• Less than 5% land holdings account for close to 1/3rd of total area. While the number of Medium & Large holdings account for less than 5%, they make up for close to 1/3rd of the total area under operation. Though the number of Marginal & Small holdings account for 85% of the total number of holdings, they together account for only 45% of the total area under operation.
• 85% holdings account for 45% of area. 5% holdings account for 33% of area.

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