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The Rajputs - Part 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The period after Harsha's death is regarded as the transitional period of Indian history. During this time the Rajputs evolved into separate clans and played a significant part in the history of northern and western India from the 8th century AD onwards.
The term Rajput denotes a tribe or clan, the members of which claimed themselves as Kshatriyas belonging to the 'solar' or 'lunar' dynasties. According to some scholars the origin of the Rajputs is connected with that of the Gurjaras. In the early years of the 6th century AD, a tribe known as the Khazars poured into India along with the Hunas. These Khazars were known as Gurjaras. According to the bardic tales, the Pratiharas (Pariharas), the Chalukyas (Solankis), the Paramaras (Pawars) and the Chahamanas (Chauhans) are 'fire-born' (agnikula), originating from a sacrificial fire-pit at Mount Abu in southern Rajputana.
The Hunas, Gurjaras and the other allied tribes who entered India during the 5th and 6th centuries merged themselves with the Indians, just as their predecessors, the Greeks, the Kushanas and the Sakas had done. In the southern group, the principal clans are the Chandels, Kalachuris or Haihayas and Gaharwars. They apparently descended from the so-called aboriginal tribes like the Gonds, and the Bhars. The evidence of a close connection between the Chandels and the Gonds is particularly strong. The Chandel Rajputs were originally Hinduised Bhars or Gonds or both, who became Kshatriyas on attaining political power. The Gaharwars similarly are associated with the Bhars; the Bundelas and the northern Rathors are offshoots of the Gaharwars. As a general rule, the Rajputs formed by the social promotion of aborigines were inimical to the Rajputs descended from foreigners.
2.0 ParamarAs (PARMARS)
There are various schools of thought regarding the origin of the Paramara clan. The most widely accepted theory is that the Paramaras - along with the Chauhans, the Pratiharas (Parihars) and the Solankis (Chalukyas) - were one of the four Agni kula ("fire-born") Kshatriyas who were of Gurjar origin.
Dr. Dashrath Sharma ascribes the origin of the Solankis, Parmars, the Guhis/Gohils and Chauhans to the Brahmins, though the works of other scholars show that the Solankis and Parmars were actually descendents of the Gujjars.
Another school of thought suggests that the Parmar clan is said to have been a tribe of central India that rose to political prominence as the feudatory of the Rashtrakutas.
In a third school of thought, the Parmar clan is said to have originally been an inseparable part of the Rashtrakutas, which later branched out from the Rashtrakutas (Rathore) and declared themselves to be a distinct Rajput clan.
2.1 Political history
Siyaka II: The history of the Paramaras really begins with the accession of Siyaka. His greatest triumph was to defy the authority of the Rashtrakutas, acknowledged so far by the Paramaras. The death of the Rashtrakuta, Krishna III presented him an opportunity and he declared himself independent. Siyaka secured large slices of territory both from Pratihara as well as the Rashtrakuta empires. Of his two sons - Munja and Sindhuraja - he was succeeded by the Munja (Vakpatiraja II).
Munja: He was the most glamorous king of the dynasty. He was a great warrior and many stories of his gallantry are sung in ballads. He defeated the Kalachuri king, Yuvaraja II. His major effort was directed towards expanding the area of his kingdom in Rajputana. Munja next defeated Mularaja of the Chalukya dynasty of Anahilapataka.
The greatest enemy of Munja was the Chalukya Taila II, who had established his authority over the Deccan after overthrowing the Rashtrakutas and wanted to assert his authority over Malava (Malwa) which once belonged to them. Taila invaded Malava no less than six times, but on all occasions he was repulsed by Munja. In order to get rid of this chronic menace, Munja launched an aggressive campaign against Taila II but was entrapped by the enemy and put to death.
Sindhuraja: Munja was succeeded by his younger brother Sindhuraja who recovered the lost territories from Taila II. He also conquered Lata (south Gujarat), but his attempt to assert supremacy over north Gujarat was foiled by the Chalukya ruler Chamundaraya, son of Mularaja I.
Bhoja: Sindhuraja was succeeded by his son Bhoja (Bhojadeva), the greatest celebrity of the Paramaras. Bhoja's reign of half a century was marked by a series of strenuous campaigns against numerous kings. Despite the ceaseless wars which Bhoja fought against several kings, he could acquire no new territory except Konkana. What distinguished him from his contemporaries was his profound scholarship and patronage of learning. He is credited with the authorship of more than 23 books on varied subjects. Bhoja's commentary on the Yogasutras of Patanjali, though brief, is a great example of his erudition. His Samaranganasutradhara is an excellent work on art and architecture. Men of letters like Dhanapala, Uvata and many others lived in his court. He founded the city of Bhojapura and built a number of temples. His apocryphal biography is Bhoja Prabandham.
Later rulers: With the passing away of Bhoja, the era of Paramara ascendancy was over. Bhoja's death was followed by a disputed succession; one of the claimants, Jayasimha, who was probably Bhoja's son, seized the throne with the help of his erstwhile enemy, Chalukya prince Vikramaditya VI of the Deccan. Henceforth Jayasimha became a staunch ally of Vikramaditya and helped the latter in an unsuccessful expedition against the eastern Chalukyas of Vengi. Udayaditya, a brother of Bhoja, succeeded Jayasimha. The famous temple of Nilakantesvara at Udayapur in Bhilsa is ascribed to him. Udayaditya had a number of sons and two of them, Lakshmadeva and Naravarman, ruled in succession after his death.
The last known king of the Paramaras was Mahlak Deo, who was defeated by Alauddin Khalji when the latter invaded his kingdom. Mahlak Deo was executed and Malava became a province of the Sultanate.
There were several minor branches of the Paramaras ruling in various parts of the Rajputana- Mount Abu, Vagada (modern Banswara and Dungarpur), Javalipura (Jalor) and Bhinmal (in southern Marwar). All these were ultimately conquered by the neighbouring states such as the Guhilas and the Chahamanas. Under the Paramaras, a rich galaxy of literary giants thronged Malwa. Dhara was the Mecca of literature in the days of Bhoja. Bhoja was the greatest builder and lover of art. The image of Sarasvati, installed by him in the main hall of Sarasvati temple of Dhara, shows Paramara sculpture at its best
3.0 Solankis
The Solanki dynasty was a royal Hindu Indian empire that ruled parts of western and central India during the 10th century to the 13th century AD. This probably was the last Hindu dynasty of India. This dynasty was established by Mulraja I in 942. He was the adopted son of Samantsinh, the last ruler of the Chavada dynasty whose members were the previous rulers of the region.
The name Solanki originates from Chalukya, the ancient Indian dynasty. During the period of 543-566, Pulakesin I established the kingdom at Vatapi (Badami, Bagalkot District in North Karnataka). Within the Rajput and Gurjar community of Rajasthan the name of the Solanki clan can be traced.
3.1 Political history
Mularaja I: The Chalukyas or Solankis ruled in Gujarat and Kathiawar for nearly three and a half centuries (AD 950-1300). Mularaja established an independent kingdom with its capital at Anahilapataka. Mularaja suffered disgrace at the hands of the Paramara Munja and withdrew to Marwar. He had hardly recovered his kingdom when he was overcome by the Kalachuri Lakshmana. His kingdom extended up to Jodhpur in the north, while his southern frontier stretched up to the Narmada. He was a devout Saiva and built two temples at Anahilapataka. The period of about 25 years which intervened between Mularaja's death and the accession of Bhima I, was inglorious.
Bhima I: His kingdom was rudely shaken by the invasion of Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni who plundered the immense riches of the famous temple of Somnath. Bhima, who fled to Kutch at the approach of Sultan Mahmud, returned to his capital after the departure of the invader. Bhima’s reign was important in the history of Indian architecture. It was during his reign that the famous Dilwara temple was built at Abu. He abdicated the throne in favour of his son Karna.
Karna: Despite a long reign of about thirty years, Karna could not achieve anything substantial. But he built numerous temples, and founded a city after his name. That city is now called Ahmedabad.
Jayasimha Siddharaja: Jayasimha, who assumed the title Siddharaja, succeeded his father Karna and ruled for nearly half a century. He embarked upon many conquests to extend his kingdom. In the north he annexed Bhinmal after defeating the Paramaras. He then subdued the Chahamanas of Sakambhari. He also invaded the Chandella kingdom and proceeded as far as Kalinjara and Mahoba. In the south, he won a victory over the Chalukya, Vikramaditya VI of Kalyani.
Jayasimha was also a great patron of literature. Under him, Gujarat became a famous seat of learning and literature. He gathered round him a large number of poets and scholars including Hemachandra, who wrote the celebrated grammar literature Siddha-Hemachandra as well as many other works. He was a Saiva and erected many temples, the most magnificent being Rudra Mahakala at Siddhapura. After his death, the throne was seized by his distant relation, Kumarapala.
Kumarapala: Kumarapala embraced Jainism under the influence of Hemachandra. He forbade animal sacrifice and his order was obeyed not only in his own kingdom but also in some of the feudatory states. Despite his religious zeal in favour of Jainism, he showed his veneration to his family deity Siva, and built temples for both the Jainas and the Brahmins.
Mularaja II: In AD 1178 Muizuddin Muhammad Ghori invaded Gujarat, but the Solankis under Mularaja's mother bravely opposed the Muslims and defeated them near Mt. Abu. However, after the Turkish conquest of India, Qutub-ud-din invaded Gujarat and plundered Anahilapataka in 1197.
Bhima II: During the reign of Bhima, all arrangements for defending Gujarat against the aggression of the neighbours were made by Lavanaprasada and his able son Viradhavala. But the most disturbing element was Yadava Singhana who led a number of invasions into Gujarat, which was however defended well by Viradhavala.
Later Rulers: Bhima II was succeeded by Tribhunapala, who was in turn was supplanted by Virama, a son of Viradhavala. The next ruler was Sarangadeva, who was succeeded by his nephew Karna II, the last Hindu king of Gujarat. Shortly afterwards, Gujarat was conquered by Alauddin Khalji. Karna II fled to Devagiri, but his queen Kamaladevi and daughter Devaladevi fell into the hands of Alauddin Khalji.
3.2 Solanki Art
The Solanki kings were great patrons of art and the magnificent architectural activity during their regime owed, in a large measure, to their active support. Both Vastupala and Tejapala (ministers of Bhima II) vied with one another in encouraging arts in the most exuberant manner possible. The whole province was studded over with monuments, distinctive in design and luxuriant in execution. The earliest buildings are the four temples at Sunak, Kanoda, Delmal and Kesara, all within a radius of fifteen miles from Anahilapataka (Patan). Of the larger temples, the temple of Surya at Modhera near Baroda is a typical example. The Jama temple of Vimala at Mount Abu in Rajputana is one of the best specimens of Solanki art.
4.0 Chahamanas
Although legends state that the Chahamanas are Agnikula, inscriptions and literary works referring to them and their namesake (the Chauhans) are all silent about it. Both Prithvirajvijaya and Hammira Mahakavya state that Chahamana (or Vasudeva), by whom the clan was formed was born from the Surya-Mandala. There were several branches of the Chahamana dynasty like Chahamanas of Sakambhari, of Lata, of Dhavalapuri, of Partabgarh and Ranthambore and also of Naddula and of Javalipura and of Satvapura. The main branch ruled from Sakambhari (modern Sambhan near Ajmer), while the others were collateral and ruled from different places.
The Chahamanas were feudatories of the Pratiharas from whom they proclaimed independence in mid tenth century.
4.1 Political history
Early rulers: Vasudadeva founded the main line of the Chahamanas in the middle of the 6th century AD with Ahichchhatra as the seat of his power. Taking advantage of the weakness of the Patiharas consequent to their struggle with the Rashtrakutas, the next important ruler Vakpatiraja defied the authority of the Pratiharas. During his reign the Chahamana family acquired a distinctly higher status as is revealed by his assumption of the title maharaja. He built at Pushkara a temple for Shiva. Vakpati had three sons - Simharaja, Vatsaraja and Lakshmana.
Simharaja and Vigraharaja II: Simharaja was the first prince of the family who assumed the title maharajadhiraja. This indicates that he made himself independent of the imperial Pratiharas of Kanauj. Simharaja's son and successor Vigraharaja II was the real founder of the future greatness of the family. He overran Gujarat, forced the Chalukya Mularaja to take refuge at Kanthakot in kutch. He extended his conquests as far south as the Narmada.
Prithviraja I and Ajayaraja II: Prithviraja I is reputed to have killed a body of 700 Chalukyas who had come to Pushkara to rob the Brahmins. From the time of his son and successor Ajayaraja II, the Chahamanas began to pursue an aggressive imperial policy. He founded the city of Ajayameru or Ajmer and enlarged and decorated it with magnificent palaces. Ajayaraja was succeeded by his son Amoraja. He had to acknowledge the suzerainty of his Chalukya rival Siddharaja Jayasimha who gave his daughter in marriage to him. The matrimonial alliance established peace for a short duration but hostilities broke out afresh with the accession of Kumarapala to the Chalukya throne.
Vigraharaja III: He was a great conqueror and extended the frontiers of his kingdom in different directions. He conquered Delhi from the Tomaras and took possession of Hansi in the Hissar district in the Punjab. In the south he plundered the Chalukya dominion of Kumarapala and thus avenged the defeat inflicted upon his father by the Chalukyas. His kingdom included perhaps a substantial portion of the Punjab lying between the Sutlej and the Yamuna. In the north-east, a portion of north Gangetic plain formed a part of his empire. Vigraharaja was an author of repute. He composed the celebrated drama, Harikeli Nataka. Among the many temples built by him at Ajmer the Sarasvati Mandira is undoubtedly the best.
Prithviraja II and Somesvara: During the rule of Prithviraja II, a grandson of Amoraja the age-long conflict with the Muslims was renewed. Prithviraja II was succeeded by his uncle Somesvara, son of Amoraja. While staying at Kumarapala's court, he married a Kalachuri princess Karpuradevi, who gave birth to two sons, Prithviraja III and Hariraja.
Prithviraja III: One of the early exploits of Prithviraja III was to suppress the revolt of his cousin, Nagarjuna. He then invaded the Chandella kingdom and defeated its king Paramardi. Thereafter, he invaded the Chaiukya kingdom of Gujarat and forced Chalukya Bhima II to conclude a treaty. Prithviraja III also entered into hostility with Jayachandra, Gahadvala ruler of Kanauj. According to folklore Jayachandra, a Gahadvala king, organised a svayamvara ceremony for the marriage of his beautiful daughter Sanyogita. Prithviraj was not invited. Prithviraj succeeded in carrying off the Gahadvala princess by force.
It was not till the capture of the strong fort of Tabarhindah, identified with Sirhind, by Shihab-ud-din that Prithviraja became conscious of the gravity of the situation. Prithviraja met the enemy at the fateful field of Tarain in 1190-91. The first battle of Tarain was disastrous for the Sultan. Muiz al-din Mohammad (Md. Ghori). Despite this victory, Prithviraja III did not take adequate steps to guard the north-western frontier of his empire and allowed himself to dissipate his energy in fighting the Gahadvala king Jayachandra.
Meanwhile, the Sultan came to Tarain in 1192 practically unopposed by passing through Multan and Lahore. One lakh soldiers were killed in the second battle of Tarain in 1192, including Govindaraja, chief of Delhi. Prithviraja himself was taken prisoner and executed thereafter. Tarain is situated 150/km from Delhi, in Haryana. The 1192 victory opend the doors for Muslim rule in India.
Many a distinguished scholar and poet from different parts of the country gathered round the court of king Prithviraja III who himself became the theme of two great poems, viz. Prithvirajavijaya and Prithviraj Raso, written by his court poets Jayanaka and Chanda (Chand Bardai) respectively.
5.0 Gahadvalas (GARHWAL)
In the 11th century, the Gahadvalas emerged suddenly in Kanauj. In fact their emergence is so sudden that it is difficult to determine their origin. The well-known theory of their connection with the dynasties of the Sun and the Moon cannot be accepted as true, although traditions trace them back to an obscure descendant of Yayati.
5.1 Political history
Early rulers: The Gahadvala dynasty was founded by Yasovigraha. Yasovigraha's son Mahichandra, also called Mahindra and Mahitala, was a ruler of some consequence who ruled in some part of Uttar Pradesh. His son, Chandradeva, took hold of the opportunity afforded by the departure of Mahmud from northern India and inflicted a crushing defeat upon the Rashtrakuta ruler, Gopala, on the banks of the Yamuna. He conquered all the territory from Allahabad to Banaras and made Banaras the second capital of the Gahadvalas. He imposed a tax called turushkadanda, possibly to defray the expenses of war against Muslim invasions or to make annual payments to the latter. He was succeeded by his son Madanachandra, also known as Madanapala.
Govindachandra: He succeeded Madanachandra and was perhaps the greatest king of the dynasty. More than forty inscriptions have come to light which testify to the splendour of his reign. Taking advantage of the weakness of the Pala monarchy, he annexed portions of Magadha. Govindachandra must have aggrandised himself at the cost of the Chedis. He also defeated the Chandellas and wrested eastern Malwa from them.
Govindachandra raised Kanauj to an unprecedented glory. His neighbouring as well as distant potentates were afraid of his power and showed due respect to him. His reign was marked by the literary activities of his minister named Lakshmidhara who produced a number of works on law and procedure, the most important of which is the Kritya Kalpataru or Kalpadruma.
Vijaya Chandra: Govindachandra was succeeded by his son, Vijayachandra. The Prithviraja Raso credits him with wide conquests, but it is difficult to accept the evidence of these bardic tales at their face value.
Jayachandra: Vijayachandra's son and successor, he succeded to the throne in 1170. His career and achievements are hardly known from his copper-plates and the panegyrics of the Prithviraja Raso. But they are illumined by the Muslim chronicles and other independent sources. Jayachandra was the last great monarch of Kanauj whose power and resources must have impressed the Muslim historians.
Jayachandra's peaceful reign was seriously menaced by Muiz-ud-din Muhammad Ghori, who, after conquering Delhi and Ajmer from the Chahamanas, advanced with a large force against Kanauj in 1193. Jayachandra met him on the plain between Chandwar and Etawah, and fell fighting.
Jayachandra's name is associated with the history of Sanskrit literature for the liberal patronage extended by him to Sriharsha, who wrote the well-known, Naisadhacharita, Khandana-khanda-khadya. The latter is treated as an important Vedanta treatise. It emphasises the latter negative and sceptical side of the Vedanta school of thought.
Last rulers: The defeat and death of Jayachandra did not lead to the annexation of the kingdom of Kanauj by the Muslims. Harishchandra, son of Jayachandra, was allowed to rule as a vassal to Shihab-ud-din. Adakkamalla, Harishchandra's successor, was deprived of his ancestral kingdom by lltutmish. Thus ended the glory of imperial Kanauj after six centuries of political domination in northern India.
6.0 Chandellas
The Chandella Dynasty began in the first quarter of the 9th century C.E. They controlled an area known as Jejakabhukti, the capital city of which is believed to be Khajuraho. Khajuraho is well known for its extravagant temples and buildings erected during the reign of the Chandellas. The Chandellas were of the Ksatriya class but their origin is greatly debated.
Legend says that they descended from Hemavati's union with the moon. It is thought that the legend is used to explain the questionable status of the Chandellas. Historians believe that they originated from aboriginal tribes such as the Gonds, Gahawars and the Bhars.
There is no way to come to a definite conclusion but theory supports an ancestry of the Bhars, because of similar traditions, especially evident in their buildings.
6.1 Political history
Early rulers: The Chandella dynasty was founded by Nannuka in the first quarter of the 9th century around Khajuraho in Bundelkhand. Nannuka’s son and successor, Vakpati, who lived in the second quarter of the 9th century, fought with contemporary rulers like Pala, Devapala and the Pratihara Bhoja. Vakpati had two sons, Jayashakti and Vijayashakti. Jayashakti, who succeeded his father, was a king of renown; the Chandella country he ruled was known as Jejakabhukti after him. Jayashakti was succeeded by his younger brother Vijayashakti, whose successor was his son Rahil.
Yasovarman: Rahil was succeeded by his son, Yashovarman, also known as Lakshavarman. The decline of the Pratihara power made it possible for Yashovarman to defy them and launch the Chandellas to aggressive militarism. The Khajuraho Inscription describes with obvious exaggeration the extensive conquests made by Yashovarman. Though an element of doubt attaches to the achievements of Yasovarman, there is no doubt that he made extensive conquests in north India and made the Chandellas a formidable power. He built a magnificent temple at Khajuraho, identified with the Chaturbhuja temple, in which he installed the image of Vishnu.
Dhanga: Yashovarman was succeeded by his son, Dhanga (954-1002), the most famous ruler of the dynasty. He inherited a large territory from his father. Dhanga assumed the title of maharajadhi-raja and raised the Chandella power to its highest. By the strength of his arms, he succeeded in extending the northern boundary of the Chandella kingdom up to the bank of the Ganga. The extant buildings at Khajuraho bear witness to the artistic activities of the reign of Dhanga. The magnificent temple of Vishvanatha built by him is one of the most well-preserved and lavishly ornamented temples at Khajuraho. The temples of Jinanatha and Vaidyanatha were also built during the reign of Dhanga.
Weak successors of Dhanga: Dhanga was succeeded by his son Gandadev who was succeeded by his son Vidyadhara. Sultan Mahmud twice invaded his kingdom in 1019 and 1022. Instead of meeting the enemy in the open field, Vidyadhara seems to have adopted the scorched earth policy and shut himself up in Kalinjar fort. The fort was besieged and the seize dragged on for a considerable time till Vidyadhara sued for peace. The death of Vidyadhara witnessed the temporary eclipse of the Chandella power under rulers like Vijayapala, Devavarman, Kirttivarman, Sallakshavarman, Jayavarman, Prithvivarman and Madanavarman.
Madanavarman was succeeded by his grandson Paramardi whose eventful reign covered the period from 1165-1202. He had to suffer a humiliating defeat at the hands of the Chahamana Prithviraja III who, however, soon succumbed to the onslaught of the Ghurid invader Shihab-ud-din Muhammad in 1192. Ten years later (1202), Muhammad's general Qutub-ud-din attacked the fort of Kalinjar, the strong citadel of the Chandellas. Qutub-ud-din plundered Kalinjar and conquered Mahoba and appointed his own governor to administer the conquered territories..
Paramardi's son Trilokyavarman recovered all the territories including Kalinjar after inflicting a severe defeat on the Muslims at Kakadwa. Trailokyavarman enjoyed a reign of about 45 years and was succeeded by Viravarman. But in 1309 Alauddin Khalji conquered the greater part of the kingdom. The last known king of Chandellas of Bundelkhand is Viravarman II.
6.1 Chandella architecture
Chandellas were described as the most significant-culturally as well as politically-among the former feudatories of the Pratiharas in central India. The style and pattern of architecture in Chandella dynasty have a rugged simplicity and are quite distinct from the works of the later Pratiharas.
The monuments of Khajuraho are divided into three groups-west, east and south of the modern village. The earliest structures are the Chaunshat-Yogini temple and Lalguan to the south and north-west of the western group and the Brahama to the west of the eastern group. Like other hypaethral temples elsewhere in India dedicated to the celebration of the shaktis or `Working Energies`of the pantheon, central to Tantric cults, the Khajuraho Chaunshat-Yogini has a broad terrace with an open court bordered by unadorned cells for sixty-four avarana-devatas, the sacred number enshrined in the Manduka Mandala - in a regular series broken only in the centre of the south range, opposite the entrance, by a large shrine for Shiva Bhairava.
The Lalguan and Brahma temples consist of a Phamsana-roofed mulaprasada with bold central projections and shallow hall portico over a plain platform. The base has both plinth and dado and the wall is divided into two registers below an entablature whose frieze is the main ornament.
The architecture of the Chandellas is considered as one of the supreme achievements of Indian architecture.
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