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Palas, Pratiharas and the Rashtrakutas
1.0 INTRODUCTION
A number of powerful Empires arose in northern India and the Deccan between AD 750 and 1000. There was the Pala Empire, which dominated eastern India till the middle of the ninth century; the Pratihara Empire, which dominated western India and the upper Gangetic valley till the middle of the tenth century, and the Rashtrakuta Empire, which dominated the Deccan and also controlled territory in north and south India at various times.
Each of these Empires, although they fought among themselves, provided stable conditions of life over large areas, and gave patronage to arts and letters. Of the three, the Rashtrakuta Empire lasted the longest. It was not only the most powerful Empire of the time, but also acted as a bridge between north and south India in economic as well as cultural matters.
2.0 THE PRATIHARAS
2.1 Origin
The Pratiharas were a branch of the famous Gurjaras- one of those nomadic Central Asian tribes that poured into India along with the Hunas following the disintegration of the Gupta empire. The Rashtrakuta records confirm the Gurjara stock of the Pratiharas and Arab writers like Abu Zaid and al-Masudi allude to their fights with the Gurjaras of the north. The most important testimony is that of the Canarese poet Pampa who calls Mahipala 'Gurjararaja'. The name was derived from one of the kings of the line holding the office of pratihara (a high dignity), in the Rashtrakuta court.
2.2 Political history
Nagabhatta I: The Pratiharas came into prominence in the middle of the eighth century AD when their ruler Nagabhatta I defended western India from the invasion of the Arabs and earned his arms up to Broach. He was able to leave to his successors a powerful principality comprising Malwa and parts of Rajputana and Gujarat. Nagabhatta I was succeeded by his brother's sons, Kakustha and Devaraja, both of whom were nonentities.
Vatsaraja: The grand-nephew of Nagabhatta I, Vatsaraja was a resourceful ruler and established an empire in northern India. He defeated the famous Bhandi clan, who wielded imperial power probably with its seat of authority at Kannauj. He also defeated Dharmapala, the king of Bengal, and laid the foundation of a mighty empire. He, however suffered a major defeat at the hands of the Rashtrakuta king, Dhruva.
Nagabhatta II: Vatsaraja was succeeded by his son Nagabhatta II who tried to retrieve the fallen fortunes of his family. But he was as unfortunate as his predecessor in suffering defeat at the hands of the Rashtrakuta king, Govinda III. Nagabhatta II tried his luck in other directions. He overran Kannauj, deposed Chakrayudha, Dharmapala's protege, and made it the capital of the Pratihara kingdom. The vassal's deposition was too galling for Dharmapala and the latter made preparations for the inevitable struggle. The Pratihara monarch advanced as far as Mungher and won a resounding victory over Dharmapala.
2.3 Conquests
The Gwalior Inscription of Nagabhatta II’s grandson tells us of Nagabhatta II’s victories over Anartta (northern Kathiawar), Malava (Malwa) or central India, the Matsyas or eastern Rajputana, the Kiratas (of the Himalaya regions), Turushkas (Arab settlers of western India) and the Vatsas in the territory of Kausambi (Kosam). The limits of the Pratihara empire under Nagabhatta II may be roughly defined as comprising parts of Rajputana, a large portion of modern Uttar Pradesh, central India, northern Kathiawar and adjacent territories. Nagabhatta II was succeeded by his son Ramabhadra during whose brief reign of three years, the Pratihara power eclipsed owing to the aggressive policy of the Pala emperor, Devapala.
Mihira Bhoja: With the accession of Ramabhadra's son Bhoja the Pratihara power reached glory. He reestablished the supremacy of his family in Bundelkhand and subjugated the Jodhpur Pratiharas (Pariharas). The Daulatpura Copper Plate of Bhoja shows that the Pratihara king had succeeded in reasserting his authority over central and eastern Rajputana. In the north, his suzerainty was acknowledged up to the foot of the Himalayas, as is proved by the grant of a piece of land in the Gorakhpur district to a Kalachuri king.
Bhoja's imperial ambition was however, not, uniformly successful. He was defeated by the Pala king, Devapala. But instead of being dispirited by this reverse in the east, he turned southward and overran southern Rajputana and the tracts round Ujjain up to the Narmada river. This brought him face to face with the Rashtrakutas whose ruler Dhruva II was able to arrest his triumphant progress.
The political spectrum underwent a change with the death of the powerful Pala ruler, Devapala, followed by the Rashtrakuta invasion of Bengal. Bhoja defeated the weak Pala king Narayanapala and secured considerable part of his western dominions. Flushed with this success he clashed with Krishna II, the Rashtrakuta. He defeated him on the banks of the Narmada and occupied Malwa.
Thus the extensive dominions of Bhoja extended up to Sutlej in the north-west, the foot of the Himalayas in the north, Bengal in the east, Bundelkhand and Vatsa territories in the south and south-east, and the Narmada and Saurashtra on the south-west including the major portion of Rajputana on the west. Bhoja had a long reign of 46 years and his eventful career drew the attention of the Arab traveller, Sulaiman.
Mahendrapala I: Bhoja was succeeded by his son Mahendrapala I. His most notable achievement was the conquest of Magadha and northern Bengal. Mahendrapala I was a liberal patron of men of letters. Rajasekhara who has a number of literary works like Karpuramanjari, Bala Ramayana, Bala and Bharata, Kavyamimamsa to his credit, was in the court of Mahendrapala I.
2.4 The decline
Mahendrapala's death was followed by a scramble for the possession of the throne. At first his son, Bhoja II seized the throne. But his half-brother Mahipala soon usurped the throne. Once more, the Rashtrakutas sapped the strength of the Pratihara empire when its ruler, Indra III, completely devastated the city of Kannauj.
But the withdrawal of Indra III to the Deccan enabled Mahipala to recover from the fatal blow. The Arab traveller Al-Masudi, who visited India in the year ad 915-16, refers to the power and resources of the king of Kannauj whose kingdom extended up to Sindh in the west and touched the Rashtrakuta kingdom in the south. The Arab chronicler testifies to the struggle between the Rashtrakutas and the Pratiharas as well as the formidable force at the disposal of the latter.
Later Rulers Mahendrapala II, son and successor of Mahipala, was able to maintain the strength of his empire in tact. But it received its shattering blow during the reign of Devapala when the Chandellas became virtually independent. The process of decline of the Pratihara empire which had begun with Devapala (Pratihara) accelerated with the reign of Vijayapala. The Pratihara empire was already a spent force when Rajyapala, the successor of Vijayapala came to the throne of Kanauj in the last decade of the 10th century AD. A certain Yashapala, referred to in an inscription of the year 1036, was perhaps the last ruler of the line.
3.0 PALAS
There was a great deal of anarchy and confusion resulting in political disintegration which marked the course of the history of Bengal from AD 650 to 750. The anarchy and confusion led to a natural reaction. The leading men of Bengal supposedly elected Gopala as the ruler of the whole kingdom.
3.1 Political history
Gopala: Gopala founded a dynasty in Bengal which ruled for nearly four centuries. He was probably born in Pundravardhana (Bogra District). The original limits of Gopala's kingdom are difficult to determine, but it seems that he consolidated his authority over almost the whole of Bengal. Gopala was an ardent Buddhist and is supposed to have built the monastery of Odantapuri (modern Bihar Sharif).
Dharmapala Gopala: Dharmapala Gopala was succeeded by his son Dharmapala who raised the Pala kingdom to greatness. Soon after his accession Dharmapala was involved in a struggle with the two main powers-the Pratiharas and the Rashtrakutas. The Pratihara ruler, Vatsaraja defeated Dharmapala in a battle which probably took place somewhere in the Gangetic Doab. But before Vatsaraja could reap the fruits of victory, he was defeated by the Rashtrakuta king Dhruva. Thereafter Dhruva defeated Dharmapala and a little later left for the Deccan.
Despite these reverses, Dharmapala gained more than what he had anticipated. With the defeat of the Pratihara power and the retreat of the Rashtrakutas, Dharmapala could dream of building up a mighty empire. Dharmapala installed Chakrayudha on the throne of Kannauj.
The Pala empire under Dharmapala was fairly extensive. It comprised Bengal and Bihar, directly ruled by him. Besides, the kingdom of Kannauj was a dependency, ruled by Dharmapala's own nominee. Beyond Kannauj there were a large number of vassal states in the Punjab, Rajputana, Malwa and Berar whose rulers acknowledged Dharmapala as their overlord.
Dharmapala's triumphant career was soon challenged by his Pratihara adversary, Nagabhatta II, who conquered Kannauj and drove away Dharmapala's protege Chakrayudha. A struggle for supremacy between the two rivals became inevitable. The Pratihara ruler advanced up to Mungher and defeated Dharmapala in a pitched battle. But Dharmapala was again rescued by the timely intervention of the Rashtrakuta king Govinda III to whom he might have appealed for aid. After a reign of 32 years Dharmapala died, leaving his extensive dominions unimpaired to his son Devapala.
As a Buddhist, Dharmapala Gopala founded the famous mahavihara of Vikramashila near Bhagalpur. He is also credited with the construction of a vihara at Somapura (Paharpur). According to Taranatha, Dharmapala founded fifty religious institutions and was a patron of the great Buddhist author Haribhadra.
Devapala: Dharmapala was succeeded by his son Devapala who is regarded as the most powerful Pala ruler. Epigraphic records credit him with extensive conquests from the Himalayas to the Vindhyas and from the eastern to the western ocean. He is said to have defeated the Gurjaras and the Hunas and conquered Utkaia and Kamarupa. The Huna and Kambhoja princes who submitted to Devapala cannot be identified properly. The Gurjara adversary may be identified with Mihira Bhoja, who tried to expand his kingdom eastwards. But he was defeated by Devapala.
Like his father, Devapala was a great patron of Buddhism and his fame spread to many Buddhist countries outside India. Balaputradeva, a king of the Buddhist Sailendras, ruling Java, sent an ambassador to Devapala, asking for a grant of five villages in order to endow a monastery at Nalanda. Devapala granted the request. He appointed Viradeva, as head of Nalanda monastery. Devapala's court was adorned with the Buddhist poet Vajradatta, the author of Lokesvarasataka.
Sulaiman, an Arab merchant who visited India and wrote his account in AD 85, refers to the Pala kingdom as Ruhmi. According to him, the Pala emperor was at war with the Gurjaras and the Rashtrakutas and had more troops than his adversaries.
3.2 Later Palas
The glory of the Pala empire suffered irretrievably with the death of Devapala. The rule of his successors was marked by a steady process of disintegration. Devapala was succeeded by Vigrahapala. After a short reign of three or four years, Vigrahapala abdicated the throne.
Vigrahapala's son and successor, Narayanapala, had a long reign. Rashtrakuta king Amoghavarsha defeated the Pala ruler. The Pratiharas gradually extended their power in the east. Narayanapala not only lost Magadha, but also north Bengal, the heartland of the Palas. However, towards the close of his reign, Narayanapala recovered north Bengal and south Bihar from the Pratiharas, the latter being weakened by the invasion of the Rashtrakutas.
Narayanapala was succeeded by his son Rajyapala who was succeeded in turn by his son Gopala II. The rule of these two rulers proved disastrous for Pala power. A series of invasions led by the Chandellas and the Kalachuris dismembered the Pala empire.
The fortune of the Palas which reached its lowest ebb was recovered to some extent by Mahipala I, who ascended the throne in AD 98. The most important event of Mahipala's reign was the invasion of Bengal by Rajendra Chola. Rajendra's Tirumalai Inscription records the details of his conquests in the north. The Chola invasion, however, did not lead to the establishment of Chola suzerainty over Bengal. Apart from north and east Bengal, Mahipala was able to recover the northern part of the Burdwan division. Mahipala's success was more pronounced in north and south Bihar. He succeeded in reestablishing his authority over a great part of Bengal. This success was due in a large measure to the repeated invasions of Sultan Mahmud which must have exhausted the strength and resources of the Rajput powers in northern India. Madanapala was the last king of the Pala dynasty.
4.0 RASHTRAKUTAS
4.1 Origin
The term Rashtrakuta denotes officers in charge of territorial divisions called rashtras. In the Deccan charters of the 7th and 8th centuries AD, Rashtrakutas were exhorted not to disturb the peaceful enjoyment of the land grants. The Rashtrakutas originally belonged to Lattalura, modern Latur of Maharashtra.
They were of Kannada origin and Kannada was their mother tongue.
4.2 Political history
Dantidurga: He began his career as a feudatory of the Chalukyas. He laid the foundations of a lasting empire. The victorious career of Dantidurga is known from the two records of his reign-the Samangad Plates and the Dasavatara Cave Inscription of Ellora. Dantidurga's plan of expansion was directed towards the east and west without disturbing Karnataka, the stronghold of Chalukya power. He invaded Malwa, which was under the rule of the Gurjara Pratiharas, and brought it within his sphere of influence. He celebrated/enshrined his victory over Malwa by performing the hiranyagarbhadana ceremony at Ujjain. After a short while, he marched to Mahakoshal or Chattisgarh District of Madhya Pradesh. Thus, by AD 750, he had become the master of the whole of Madhya Pradesh and central and southern Gujarat. He then attacked and overthrew his suzerain, Kirtivarman II, the Chalukya emperor and proclaimed himself the paramount ruler of the Deccan. He did not live long after this victory.
Krishna I: Dantidurga died childless and was succeeded by his uncle Krishna I. After securing his position in Maharashtra and Karnataka, Krishna I advanced southwards and invaded Gangawadi (modem Mysore), which was then under the sway of its Ganga ruler Sripurusha. He returned home after permitting Sripurusha to rule as a feudatory. In the east, Krishna I came to grips with the Chalukyas of Vengi. He sent the crown prince Govinda to Vengi and its ruler Vijayaditya I made his submission without a fight. Great as a conqueror, Krishna was equally great as a builder. He constructed the magnificent rock-cut monolithic temple at Ellora, now known as Kailasa.
Dhruva: Krishna I was succeeded by his eldest son Govinda II. He practically left the whole administration to the care of his younger brother, Dhruva. But Dhruva was ambitious and seized the throne for himself. Shortly after his accession, Dhruva proceeded to punish the kings who had supported his brother. Dhruva then made a bold bid to control north Indian politics, a feat in which no Deccan power had succeeded since the days of the Satavahanas. At that time northern India was convulsed by the struggle for supremacy between Vatsaraja Pratihara and Dharmapala, the Pala ruler of Bengal.
While Vatsaraja was engaged in hostilities with Dharmapala in the Doab, Dhruva crossed the Narmada and occupied Malwa without much opposition. He then proceeded towards Kannauj and inflicted such a crushing defeat on Vatsaraja that the latter sought refuge in the deserts of Rajasthan. Dhruva proceeded further north into the Ganga-Yamuna Doab where he routed Dharmapala. Without marching further into the imperial city of Kanauj, Dhruva returned home laden with rich booty. He had four sons, Karka, Stambha, Govinda and Indra, of whom Karka had predeceased his father. Of the remaining three sons, the emperor chose the able Govinda as his successor and installed him as crown prince.
Govinda III: Though the accession of Govinda took place peacefully, soon he had to face the hostility of his eldest brother, Stambha, who had been chafing owing to his supercession. After defeating Stambha and securing his position in the Deccan, Govinda turned his attention to the ever tempting politics of northern India. Govinda marched into northern India and defeated Nagabhatta II who fled into Rajputana leaving the Doab at the mercy of the invader. Chakrayudha, the puppet emperor of Kanauj, offered unconditional surrender and so did Dharmapala. Besides the powerful Gurjara Pratihara and Pala kings, other rulers of northern India were also defeated by Govinda III.
Amoghavarsha I: Govinda III was succeeded by his son Sarva, better known as Amoghavarsha. Amoghavarsha was not destined to enjoy peace during his long reign of 64 years. He had to encounter frequent rebellions of his feudatories and to wage constant wars against his powerful hostile neighbours. Amoghavarsha's reign lacked brilliance and vigour of his father and grandfather. Gangawadi and Malava were lost to the empire.
Instead of war, it was rather peace, religion and literature that attracted him most. In his later life he developed definite leanings towards Jainism and Jinasena, the author of Adipurana, was his chief preceptor. Amoghavarsha was himself an author and a liberal patron of men of letters. The Kavirajamarga, the earliest work on poetics in the Kannada language, was written by him. He was also a great builder. He built the city of Manyakheta and adorned it with an excellent palace. He was succeeded by his son Krishna II.
Krishna II: He was neither an able ruler nor a good military commander. His only achievement was the termination of the Gujarat branch. He could just maintain his own against Bhoja I and his wars against Vengi and the Cholas brought disaster and disgrace. Like his father, Amoghavarsha, Krishna was a Jaina.
Indra III: Krishna II was succeeded by his grandson Indra III. Indra emulated his great ancestors by declaring war against the Gurjara Pratihara emperor, Mahipala. He marched upon Kanauj and occupied it. Towards Vengi, Indra followed the policy of fomenting troubles for the ruling king and put his own nominee on the Vengi throne.
Amoghavarsha II: Indra III was succeeded by his son Amoghavarsha II. Within a year of accession, Amoghavarsha II died and his younger brother Govinda ascended the throne.
Amoghavarsha III and Krishna III: Govinda was a tyrant whose conduct and vicious life provoked universal resentment. A chieftain took a leading part in the revolution which brought about the end of the inglorious reign of Govinda IV and the transfer of the crown to Amoghavarsha III. Amoghavarsha III devoted himself to religious rather than administrative affairs. The government was carried on by crown prince Krishna III. After his accession Krishna spent a few years in strengthening the administration. Krishna led a lightning expedition to the Chola kingdom and captured Kanchi and Tanjore. It took the Cholas a few years to recover from the blow and in AD 949 a decisive battle was fought at Takkolam in the North Arcot District. Krishna marched farther south and after defeating both the Kerala and Pandya kings even succeeded in occupying Ramesvaram for a time. He built a number of temples in the conquered territories among which the temples of Krishnesvara and Gandamartandatiya at Ramesvaram are famous. Throughout his long reign, Krishna III remained in effective possession of Tondai-mandala consisting of the Arcot, Chingleput and Vellore Districts.
Like most of his predecessors, Krishna III interfered in the affairs of Vengi. But the Rashtrakuta power in Vengi proved to be short lived. Towards the close of his reign, Krishna led an expedition into Malwa against the Paramara ruler Harsha Siyaka and occupied Ujjain.
Krishna's reign marked the disintegration of the Rashtrakuta empire. He was oblivious of the feudal developments likely to endanger the stability of the empire by granting the province of Tardavadi near the heart of the empire as a fief to Tailapa. Within a few years of Krishna's death, Tailapa felt strong enough to overthrow the Rashtrakutas and to lay the foundations of the Western Chalukya empire of Kalyani.
Khottiga: Khottiga Krishna III was succeeded by his halfbrother Khottiga. During his reign, the Rashtrakuta empire received a rude blow which completely shattered its prestige. The defeat which the Paramara king Siyaka had sustained at the hands of Krishna III, was rankling in his mind and he made necessary preparations to avenge it. Siyaka sacked Malkhed, the Rashtrakuta capital. Khottiga did not survive long the disgrace and was followed by his nephew Karka II.
Karka II: The prestige of the empire had suffered irreparably when Karka II ascended the throne. Matters were worsened by the maladministration of the new emperor. The feudatories naturally felt emboldened to challenge the imperial authority and one of them eventually deprived Karka of his sovereignty over the Deccan within about eighteen months of his accession. This feudatory was Taila II (Tailapa) of the Chalukya family.
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