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Basics, Parts of Speech, Nouns, Subjects, Verbs
Why study grammar?
You can write and speak English, so why should you worry about grammar?
One good reason is that you must know grammar to pass your examination. The second, more important reason is that grammar helps you use words more effectively to convey your thoughts better. Knowledge of grammar helps you become a better communicator. And, as you know, good communication makes good business sense!
In this booklet, we introduce you to the basics of grammar.
You cannot understand grammar just by reading. Please complete all exercises. You may get most of it right. But do not dismiss anything as too simple. One simple nail is all it takes to deflate a tyre.
This booklet is designed by our experts to help you avoid those pinpricks of doubts and mistakes during your examination. Hopefully this booklet will also make you more conscious of the correct usage of grammar for the rest of your life.
Finally, here are a few tips to help you conquer grammar.
- Please develop a positive attitude towards grammar! Make it your friend.
- Be aware of common errors in grammar. Make sure you know how to avoid those mistakes.
- Identify the kind of mistakes you tend to make and ensure that you do not keep repeating the same mistakes.
- We tend to be casual in the way we speak. We worry about grammar only when we write. The truth is we tend to write the way we speak. Try to be grammatically correct even when you speak. Those who speak right, write better!
- And one final tip that will definitely make you a better writer. Read, read and read. Be conscious of the writing techniques used by experts. Observe, understand and use those techniques.
Best wishes for a long-lasting friendship with grammar!
If you have any queries, please write to us at ias@pteducation.com
Best Wishes !
What is grammar?
Listen to this conversation between a husband and a wife:
“I have used less oil. This dish is really light.”
“It smells so good! Let us light some candles.”
“Let me move the table to the terrace. This table is very light to carry.”
“Let us switch off the light and eat in the light of the candles.”
Note how many times they have used the word light. And each use conveys a different meaning of the same word.
Now let us rearrange the first sentence: “Less used oil I have.” The same group of words but what a difference in meaning!
Grammar helps us to form and arrange words to form a meaningful sentence.
About a sentence
What is a sentence? It is a group of words which makes complete sense.
Every sentence names some person or thing and says something about this person or thing. This means every sentence has two parts. The name or thing is the subject of the sentence. The second part that tells something about the subject is the predicate of the sentence. The predicate may come before or after the subject. In some cases, the subject may be left out. For example, in So cruel! the missing subject that is understood is You.
Phrase and clause
A phrase is a part of a sentence that makes some sense but not complete sense. In She wears a dress of gold, the part of gold is a phrase.
Let us now change this sentence to She wears a dress which is made of gold. In which is made of gold we have a subject and a predicate. We also have an action word or verb in made. This is more complete than a phrase and is called a clause. A clause may form a sentence by itself.
Parts of speech
Remember that conversation between the husband and the wife where they used one word light to convey different meanings? Every word does a job or has a certain use in a sentence. Depending on this job or use we can divide words into eight different classes. These are called parts of speech. Think back to what we learned in school. Let us study the following table and refresh our memory.
Please note that the same word may function as different parts of speech depending on how it is used in a sentence. Phrases or clauses may do the job of a single word. Thus we have adverb phrases and clauses, and adjective phrases and clauses.
NOUNS
- Common Nouns Common nouns are used to name a general person, place or thing. Examples: man, baby, city, month
- Proper Nouns Proper nouns are used to name a specific person, place or thing. Note: Proper nouns are generally capitalised. Examples: John, Chintu, Mumbai, August
- Collective Nouns Collective nouns are used to name groups of people, places, or things. Examples: team, herd, flock, gaggle, pride
- Plural Forms of Nouns General rules In most cases, an “s” is added to the end of the noun to form the plural. Examples: bananas, cars Sometimes, “es” is added to the end of the noun to form the plural. This generally occurs when the noun ends in s, z, ch, or sh. Examples: bushes, glasses, porches
Exceptions:
- Nouns that end in a vowel plus o: add s. Examples: patios, radios
- Nouns that end with a consonant plus o: add es. Example: potatoes
- Nouns that end in f or fe: change the f to v and add es. Example: calf becomes calves
- Certain noun plural forms are irregular and must be memorised. Example: mouse/mice; ox/oxen; goose/geese; person/ people
- For some nouns, the plural form is the same as the singular form. Example: sheep/sheep; deer/deer; elk/elk; moose/moose
- E. Possessive Nouns A possessive noun shows ownership. Possessive nouns are formed by adding an apostrophe and “s” or only an apostrophe. In the following sentences, note the words that tell who owns the bicycles.
- One girl’s bicycle was pink.
- The twins’ bicycle has two seats.
- The men’s bicycles have large frames.
The words “girl’s”, “twins’ ”, and “men’s” are possessive nouns. The possessive form of a noun shows that the person or thing named owns something.
Form
To form the possessive, add “‘s” (apostrophe and s) to the noun.
If the noun is plural, or already ends in s, just add ’ (an apostrophe).
For names ending in -s
In speaking we add the sound /ª z/ to the name, but in writing it is possible to use either ‘s or just ‘. The ‘s form is more common. e.g. Thomas’s book, James’s shop.
Examples
The car of John = John’s car.
The room of the girls = The girls’ room.
Clothes for men = Men’s clothes.
The sister of Charles = Charles’ sister.
The boat of the sailors = The sailors’ boat.
Some fixed expressions that use the possessive form
Time expressions
a day’s work
a fortnight’s holiday
a month’s pay
today’s newspaper
in a year’s time
Other expressions
For God’s sake!
a pound’s worth of apples.
the water’s edge
a stone’s throw away (= very near)
at death’s door (= very ill)
in my mind’s eye (= in my imagination)
Possessive use of names or job titles or establishments
Examples
the grocer’s, the doctor’s, the vet’s, the newsagent’s, the chemist’s, Smith’s, the dentist’s, Tommy Tucker’s, Luigi’s, Saint Mary’s, Saint James’s.
- Shall we go to Luigi’s for lunch?
- I’ve got an appointment at the dentist’s at eleven o’clock.
- Is Saint Mary’s an all-girls school?
Irregular Plurals
Some nouns are exceptions when it comes to their plural form. These nouns are called irregular plurals. When these irregular nouns become plural, their spelling changes in a different way, or it might not change at all. Here are some very tricky irregular nouns.
Practice exercises
EXERCISE No. 1
In the following questions, indicate the nouns and classify them as common, proper, collective or abstract.
- The tiger has great agility.
- The Brahmaputra overflows its banks every year.
- This class consists of 80 students.
- Without wealth there is no happiness.
- This class is studying grammar.
Give the noun form for the following words.
- Starve
- Coward
- Regent
- Vain
- Glutton
EXERCISE No. 2
Correct the following sentences.
- We should not be miserly in giving alm to the beggars.
- I send herewith my hearty thank for your timely help.
- I have sent my trouser to the laundry.
- He has built a house on the outskirt of the city.
- The cottage was thrown into shamble by the earthquake.
- He immersed the remain of his father into the Ganges.
- He has lost all his valuable.
- Please accept my congratulation for your success.
- He sucked the liquor to the last dreg.
- The prisoner was kept in fetter.
- I have no liking for pastoral poetries.
- She has to purchase all kinds of stationeries for the school.
- She is very fond of sparkling jewelleries.
- Don’t travel with heavy luggages.
- Receive all necessary informations from him.
- Please show me all items of crockeries.
- The letter is short of postages.
- Can you not reduce your wastages?
- What great chance was given to you.
- We never saw as cultured man as he.
- There had never been as successful debate as that.
- There had never been so great fair ever held here before.
- You cannot give too clear evidence on this issue.
EXERCISE No. 3
Choose the correct alternative from those given within brackets in each sentence.
- I love to walk in the fresh morning (air/airs).
- I shall spare no (pain/pains) to give the complete information to you.
- Please submit your income-tax (return/returns) immediately.
- This stool is made of (iron/irons).
- I shall shift all my household (effect/effects) from here.
- I have booked my (good/goods) by passenger train.
- He struck the ball with great (force/forces).
- You have to pay your (custom/customs) duty.
- He has gone to the (wood/woods) in search of his lost cattle.
- He has built a small temple in the (premises/premise) of his new house.
FINDING SUBJECTS AND VERBS
Being able to find the right subject and verb will help you correct errors concerning agreement.
Example:
The list of items is/are on the desk.
If you know that list is the subject, then you will correctly choose “is” for the verb.
Being able to identify the subject and verb correctly will also help you with commas and semicolons as you will see later.
Definition: A verb is a word that shows action (runs, hits, slides) or state of being (is, are, was, were, am, etc.).
Examples:
He ran around the block.
You are my friend.
Rule 1. If a verb follows “to”, it is called an infinitive phrase and is not the main verb. You will find the main verb either before or after the infinitive phrase.
Examples:
I like to walk.
The efforts to get her elected succeeded.
Definition: A subject is the noun or pronoun that performs the action indicated by the verb.
Example:
The woman hurried.
Here, “woman” is the subject.
Rule 2: A subject will come before a phrase beginning with “of.”
Example:
A bouquet of yellow roses will lend colour and fragrance to the room.
Rule 3. To find the subject and verb, always find the verb first. Then ask who or what performed the verb.
Examples:
The jet engine passed inspection.
“Passed” is the verb. Who or what passed? The engine. So, “engine” is the subject.
It is all right you included the word “jet” as the subject. Technically, jet is an adjective here and is part of what is known as the complete subject.
From the ceiling hung the chandelier.
Here, the verb is “hung”. Now, if you think ceiling is the subject, slow down.
Ask who or what hung. The answer is chandelier, not ceiling.
Therefore, chandelier is the subject.
Rule 4. Any request or command such as “Stop!” or “Walk quickly!” has the understood subject “you” because if we ask who is to stop or walk quickly, the answer must be “you”.
Example:
(You) Please bring me some coffee.
Bring is the verb. Who is to do the bringing? You understood.
Rule 5. Sentences often have more than one subject, more than one verb, or pairs of subjects and verbs.
Examples:
I like cake and he likes ice cream.
Two pairs of subjects and verbs.
He and I like cake.
Two subjects and one verb.
She lifts weights and jogs daily.
One subject and two verbs.
More Exercises
Finding subjects and verbs
- This gorgeous grand piano is tuned to perfection.
- Every environmental regulation has been undermined by that industry.
- My gift for walking and talking simultaneously did not go unnoticed.
- Your red scarf matches your eyes.
- Every attempt to flatter him failed miserably.
- Think before you speak and you will be glad for the things you never said.
- If all is lost, why am I still playing?
- Jared longed for a pity party after he lost his job.
- Have you memorised all the chemical symbols on the chart?
- Buses has only one “s” in the middle of it.
- Please answer the question without smirking.
Test your vocabulary
Please select the pair of words or phrases given in each question that best expresses a relationship similar to that expressed by the capitalised pair:
- WALLET : CREDIT CARDS
- basketball : hoop
- vase : water
- ocean : lake
- food : pantry
- UNIQUE : MONOTONY
- rambunctious : treason
- excitement : event
- destiny : limit
- dangerous : calm
- DEHYDRATION : LIQUID
- disease : medication
- theory : scientist
- money : poverty
- treaty : war
- APPREHENSIVE : PETRIFIED
- emotional : accord
- elated : deaden
- sincere : satisfied
- funny : hilarious
Choose the option FARTHEST in meaning to the lead word given:
- BUCOLIC
- vigorous
- ripe
- civic
- affable
- ESPY
- compromise a position
- become ill
- support enthusiastically
- fail to see
- VITRIOLIC
- humble
- pleasant
- retiring
- thoughtful
- RENEGE
- speed up suddenly
- allow to become loose
- follow through
- conform to what is conventional
- AMELIORATE
- exaggerate
- exacerbate
- vanquish
- circumvent
- Even detractors who warn of its potential for abuse by powerful despots agree that genetic engineering, if used ..., can reduce the incidence of the sort of physical and mental deformities that any society would want to eliminate.
- premeditatedly
- biologically
- recklessly
- discriminately
- illicitly
- Salinger’s Catcher in the Rye, having become a manifesto for psychopaths and potential miscreants, is viewed by many high-school administrators as too ... to be suitable for teenage students.
- austere
- insipid
- provocative
- aberrant
- progressive
- Paradoxically, industrialist Andrew Carnegie gained his reputation for ... at the expense of his own factory workers, who were oppressed by the ... steel magnate to an extent that would be considered by today’s standards of labour practice to be unconscionable.
- efficiency...affluent
- innovation...benevolent
- ruthlessness...shrewd
- philanthropy...cost-conscious
- The government’s ... clinical study requirements for approval of new drugs do not ... pharmaceutical firms when it comes to research and development, chiefly because of the profit potential afforded by patent protection.
- official..permit
- onerous..dissuade
- extensive..motivate
- unenforceable..favour
- Mozart’s “partiality” for chocolate from Salzburg resulted in today’s famous Mozart Kugeln.
- dislike
- preference
- aversion
- abhorrence
- The lion’s “ferocious” behaviour was attributed to its lack of edible flesh.
- tame
- relaxed
- savage
- congenial
- Be careful not to “rush” your studies, even when in a hurry.
- improve
- hurry
- deepen
- dwindle
- Dormitory “get-togethers” are encouraged on a monthly basis.
- study periods
- informal meetings
- cleaning sessions
- eating joints
- The artist’s “profile” can be found carved into the cave walls.
- vignette
- outline
- description
- decor
- Horses are often put out to “pasture” during the early morning hours.
- cleaned
- field
- arena
- coliseum
- Janet’s “profuse” use of the adjective like bothered the professor.
- incorrect
- delayed
- plentiful
- subserved
- The “crooked” use of gambling schemes is often found while surfing the Internet.
- enjoyable
- difficult
- dishonest
- rarefied
- Teenage “lethargy” is often due to lack of proper nutrients.
- enthusiasm
- sluggishness
- boredom
- malaise
- Unfortunately, information concerning the latest crisis in the state government is arriving “piecemeal”.
- incorrectly
- delayed
- bit by bit
- over the top
Match the word in the left column with the correct definition on the right
Nouns
Answers to Exercise No. 1
- Tiger (common); agility (abstract)
- Brahmaputra (proper); banks (common); year (common)
- Class (collective); students (common)
- Wealth (abstract); happiness (abstract)
- Class (collective); grammar (abstract)
- Starvation
- Cowardice
- Regency
- Vanity
- Gluttony
Answers to Exercise No. 2
- alms
- thanks
- trousers
- outskirts
- shambles
- remains
- valuables
- congratulations
- dregs
- fetters
- poetry
- stationery
- jewellery
- luggage
- information
- crockery
- postage
- wastage
- What a great
- as cultured a man
- as successful a debate
- so great a fair
- too clear an evidence.
Answers to Exercise No. 3
- air
- pains
- returns
- iron
- effects
- goods
- force
- customs
- woods
- premises.
Finding subjects and verbs quiz
- This gorgeous grand piano is tuned to perfection.
- Every environmental regulation has been undermined by that industry.
- My gift for walking and talking simultaneously did not go unnoticed.
- Your red scarf matches your eyes.
- Every attempt to flatter him failed miserably.
- (You)Think before you speak and you will be glad for the things you never said.
- If all is lost, why am I still playing?
- Jared longed for a pity party after he lost his job.
- Have you memorised all the chemical symbols on the chart?
- Buses has only one “s” in the middle of it.
- (You) Please answer the question without smirking.
Test your vocabulary
- Ans.(2)
- Ans.(4)
- Ans.(1)
- Ans.(4)
- The correct response is (3).Bucolic means pastoral, rustic, or agrarian; civic means municipal or urban.
- The correct response is (4). To espy is to see at a distance or catch sight of. Among the options, fail to see (4) is farthest from the definition of espy.
- The correct answer is (2). Vitriolic means bitter and is commonly used to describe a person’s personality. A pleasant personality is contrary to a vitriolic (bitter) one.
- The correct answer is (3). To renege is to go back on one’s promise, just the opposite of following through on one’s promise.
- The correct answer is (2). To ameliorate is to improve or correct; the opposite of improve is worsen or exacerbate.
- The correct answer is (4). The missing word must contrast with the notion of abuse of genetic engineering, while being consistent with the desirable goal of reducing the incidence of deformities. Only (4) accomplishes both. To use the technology “discriminately” would be to conscientiously apply it only toward certain ends (such as reducing deformities) and not toward others (like abuse by despots).
- The correct response is (3). A miscreant is a villain, scoundrel or criminal. The sentence infers that Catcher In the Rye might provoke (incite) potential miscreants to engage in violent antisocial behaviour.
- The correct answer is (4). The operative word in this sentence is paradoxically. A paradox is an apparent contradiction. So the sentence intends to point out two contradictory traits of Carnegie. Option (4) accomplishes this. Philanthropy literally means love of humankind and it is usually used to describe generous charitable giving by wealthy individuals. Carnegie’s cost-cutting business practices and oppressive treatment of his labour force would seem paradoxical, given his reputation as a philanthropist.
- The correct response is (2). The operative word in this sentence is “because”, which requires that what follows it must explain what precedes it. Profit potential would explain why drug companies persist in developing new drugs despite onerous (burdensome) government regulations. Option (2) expresses this idea. (The word dissuade means “discourage or persuade not to.”)
- Ans.(2). Partiality means a particular liking or fondness for something (inclination, predilection, predisposition) and preference in option 2 means a greater liking for one alternative over another. The rest are antonyms.
- Ans.(3). Ferocious means savagely fierce, cruel or violent. Savage in option 3 is nearest in meaning to the word. The rest are antonyms.
- Ans.(2).. Rush means move or act with great haste. So, hurry in option 2 is nearest in meaning to the given word. The rest do not fit.
- Ans.(2). Get-together means an informal gathering and hence option 2 fits correctly. The rest of the options do not gel with the given word and can be discarded.
- Ans.(2). The word profile means a drawing or other representation of such an outline. This is nearest in meaning to “outline” in option 2. Vignette in option 1 means a small illustration or portrait which fades into its background without a definite border. The rest of the options have no connection to the given word.
- Ans.(2). Pasture means meadow, field and hence is nearest to option 2. The rest of the options can be discarded.
- Ans.(3). Profuse means plentiful, copious and abundant and hence is nearest to option 3. The rest of the options are incorrect in the given context.
- Ans.(3). Crooked means illegal, unlawful, questionable and is nearest in meaning to option 3. The rest can be discarded.
- Ans.(2). Lethargy means a lack of energy and enthusiasm (inertia, inactivity) and hence is nearest in meaning to option 2. The rest do not fit in.
- Ans.(3). Piecemeal in this context stands for “unsystematic partial measures taken over a period of time” and is nearest to option 3. The rest can be discarded.
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